From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The BBS user launches a terminal program, initiates a phone call to the BBS number in this program, after connecting, the BBS offers to log in (enter a login and password) or register as a new user, and after a successful user login, provides him with access:
- to a "bulletin board" where anyone or a select few can post news and announcements (this is where BBS started);
- to thematic conferences (like modern web forums), with the development of BBS, conferences were distributed between BBS over the Fidonet network and became known as echo conferences;
- to file sharing directories, each file is accompanied by a description and a download counter, for users the rating of downloads/downloads can be taken into account.
In addition to online access to conferences, ways have been developed to read conferences offline using QWK ( English) and Blue Wave ( English). The user connected to the BBS, downloaded a package file with messages to his computer, and disconnected. Read messages, wrote replies and new messages in the conference, which then the program QWK or blue wave collected in a package. In the most free time of the BBS, the user reconnected to the BBS, uploaded a package with his messages to it, and downloaded a package with messages that other users had left on the BBS during the time that had passed since his previous call to the BBS.
BBS organization requires special software.
Performance
Most BBSs are operated using a terminal program in text mode.
Plain text (8-bit characters without color codes and screen blanking), ANSI (an ASCII text extension with color highlighting that allows pseudo-graphic drawings) and AVATAR ( English) (a more efficient binary protocol with the ability to transfer bitmap graphics) .
Later, the RIPScrip protocol was developed ( English) that supports vector graphics and pointing input devices. The official editor of RIPScrip was paid, and soon BBS gave way to the popularity of the World Wide Web with HTML.
Typical BBS functions
- File archives (on modem BBSs, usually files are first selected from those found by searching [by name or description, masks are sometimes supported] or through a list, and then downloaded)
- Ads (can be shown, for example, at the entrance)
- Echoconferencing (an analogue on the Internet - usenet forums and conferences)
- Chat with other users on multi-line BBS - the ability to communicate with other connected users in real time (analog on the Internet - Instant Messenger, IRC);
- Games - single-player and multi-player, including those with a single universe on several BBS. On some BBS games are able to change different limits (see access levels) depending on the results. Game BBS example:
Access levels
Each registered user on the BBS can be set to a level of access, usually from twit (the lowest level at which access is generally closed) to sysop (with full rights). Depending on this level, the time spent on the line, the limit on downloading files, the ability to create messages, access to chat, etc. may vary.
BBS Programs
| Name | License | Platforms |
|---|---|---|
| Maximus | Until 2002 - commercial [How?] ; since 2002 - GNU GPL 2+ | |
| MBSE | GNU GPL | |
| Remote Access BBS | Proprietary commercial (shareware ?) | |
| IN-MENU | Freeware | |
| Synchronet( English) | ?; 2.30 - public domain [When?] ; 3 - GNU GPL 2+ | |
| Tornado BBS | 1.70 sources were opened by the author in 1999 (?) |
Notable BBS
RF Moscow- White Bear BBS, 2:5020/22 - the first multi-line BBS in Moscow, owned by CJSC MCC "Variant". Later converted to ISP DEOL.
- InfoScience BBS, 2:5020/238 - had about 14 lines with interline chat. She was in the Ministry of Science of the Russian Federation.
- 8BBS 2:5080/236.14@fidonet +7-343-337-79-22 22:00-07:00 UTC+5 (+6) - the only one in Yekaterinburg is still operating (2010). At this time, 8BBS is temporarily not working (due to the death of the hard drive). After repairing the hard drive, the station will be restored and 10 telnet lines will appear (previously there were 4). Currently, the 8BBS file archive can be accessed via and FTP. DC-hub also works.
- 2:463/877 570-57-80 20:30-06:30 bbs.neon.ne.jp - Tornado
- Infohelp BBS 212-06-73 24h - Tornado (closed as of 2011)
- Perkombank 255-86-02 CM - Maximus (closed as of 2011)
see also
Write a review on the article "BBS"
Notes
Links
- -
- - BBS related services
- (zip)
- Bulletin Board Systems in the Open Directory Project (dmoz) links directory.
An excerpt characterizing the BBS
No matter how strange the historical descriptions of how some king or emperor, having quarreled with another emperor or king, gathered an army, fought with the army of the enemy, won a victory, killed three, five, ten thousand people and, as a result, conquered the state and the whole people in several million; no matter how incomprehensible why the defeat of one army, one hundredth of all the forces of the people, forced the people to submit, - all the facts of history (as far as we know it) confirm the validity of the fact that greater or lesser successes of the army of one people against the army of another people are causes or, according to at least essential signs of an increase or decrease in the strength of the peoples. The army won, and immediately the rights of the victorious people increased to the detriment of the defeated. The army has suffered a defeat, and immediately, according to the degree of defeat, the people are deprived of their rights, and with the complete defeat of their army, they completely submit.So it has been (according to history) from ancient times to the present. All the wars of Napoleon serve as confirmation of this rule. According to the degree of defeat of the Austrian troops - Austria is deprived of its rights, and the rights and forces of France increase. The victory of the French at Jena and Auerstet destroys the independent existence of Prussia.
But suddenly, in 1812, the French won a victory near Moscow, Moscow was taken, and after that, without new battles, not Russia ceased to exist, but an army of 600,000 ceased to exist, then Napoleonic France. It is impossible to force facts on the rules of history, to say that the battlefield in Borodino was left to the Russians, that after Moscow there were battles that destroyed Napoleon's army - it is impossible.
After the Borodino victory of the French, there was not a single not only general, but any significant battle, and the French army ceased to exist. What does it mean? If this were an example from the history of China, we could say that this phenomenon is not historical (a loophole of historians when something does not fit their standard); if it were a case of a short-term clash in which small numbers of troops would participate, we could take this phenomenon as an exception; but this event took place before the eyes of our fathers, for whom the question of life and death of the fatherland was decided, and this war was the greatest of all known wars ...
The period of the campaign of 1812 from the Battle of Borodino to the expulsion of the French proved that a won battle is not only not the cause of conquest, but not even a permanent sign of conquest; proved that the power that decides the fate of peoples lies not in the conquerors, even in armies and battles, but in something else.
French historians, describing the situation of the French army before leaving Moscow, argue that everything in the Great Army was in order, except for cavalry, artillery and carts, but there was no fodder for horses and cattle. Nothing could help this disaster, because the surrounding peasants burned their hay and did not give it to the French.
The battle won did not bring the usual results, because the peasants Karp and Vlas, who, after the French had come to Moscow with carts to rob the city, did not personally show heroic feelings at all, and all the countless number of such peasants did not bring hay to Moscow for the good money that they offered, but burned it.
Let's imagine two people who went out to a duel with swords according to all the rules of fencing art: fencing went on for quite a long time; suddenly one of the opponents, feeling wounded - realizing that this was not a joke, but about his life, threw down his sword and, taking the first club that came across, began to toss with it. But let us imagine that the enemy, having so wisely used the best and simplest means to achieve the goal, at the same time inspired by the traditions of chivalry, would want to hide the essence of the matter and would insist that he, according to all the rules of art, won with swords. One can imagine what confusion and obscurity would result from such a description of the duel that took place.
The fencer who demanded the fight according to the rules of the art was the French; his opponent, who dropped his sword and raised his club, were Russians; people who try to explain everything according to the rules of fencing are historians who wrote about this event.
Since the fire of Smolensk, a war has begun that does not fit under any previous legends of wars. The burning of towns and villages, the retreat after the battles, the blow of Borodin and the retreat again, the abandonment and fire of Moscow, the catching of marauders, the capture of transports, the guerrilla war - all these were deviations from the rules.
Napoleon felt this, and from the very time when he stopped in Moscow in the correct posture of a swordsman and saw a cudgel raised above him instead of the enemy’s sword, he did not stop complaining to Kutuzov and Emperor Alexander that the war was being waged against all the rules (as if there were what are the rules for killing people). Despite the complaints of the French about non-compliance with the rules, despite the fact that for some reason it seemed to the Russians, people of the highest position, to be ashamed to fight with a club, but they wanted to take the position en quarte or en tierce [fourth, third] according to all the rules, to make a skillful fall into prime [first], etc., - the cudgel of the people's war rose with all its formidable and majestic strength and, without asking anyone's tastes and rules, with stupid simplicity, but with expediency, without analyzing anything, rose, fell and nailed the French to those until the whole invasion has perished.
And it is good for the people who, not like the French in 1813, saluting according to all the rules of art and turning the sword over with the hilt, gracefully and courteously hand it over to the generous winner, but good for the people who, in a moment of trial, without asking about how they acted according to the rules others in such cases, with simplicity and ease, pick up the first club that comes across and nail it until the feeling of insult and revenge in their soul is replaced by contempt and pity.
One of the most tangible and advantageous deviations from the so-called rules of war is the action of scattered people against people huddled together. This kind of action always manifests itself in a war that takes on a popular character. These actions consist in the fact that, instead of becoming a crowd against a crowd, people disperse separately, attack one by one and immediately flee when they are attacked by large forces, and then attack again when the opportunity presents itself. This was done by the Guerillas in Spain; this was done by the highlanders in the Caucasus; the Russians did it in 1812.
In the article:
Today credit a plastic card- this is a lot of opportunities and prospects from partner organizations of the bank. With skillful use, it turns into an excellent financial instrument. Activate credit card once is enough, and use up to a couple of decades. Subject to regular renewal and renewable credit limit. Such is a card with an interesting name Benefit from Home Credit Bank.
Benefits and Benefits
The Use card has a very solid credit limit- up to 300,000 rubles. And the limit is renewable. This means that the client, having used all the credit money approved by him and returning them without delays and debts, again gets the opportunity to spend the same initial amount on the Benefit card from Home Credit Bank.
Credit card special offer jar. It's available regular customers, as well as those who used the services of this financial institution.
You can apply for and activate this loan product within 15 minutes. For this purpose you can use Personal Area.
It is also convenient to activate such an offer from the bank because the Benefit credit card is not subject to commission fees for monthly service Grace period on the card, after you were able to activate it, the bank offers more than a month. Namely, for 51 days you will have access to interest-free cash withdrawals for any purpose.
Requirements for borrowers
You can activate the card immediately after signing a loan agreement at the bank with an authorized employee. Before you go to the bank, check if you meet the requirements set by Home Credit Bank.
- citizenship Russian Federation. Default requirement for Russian system lending. The Benefit from Home Credit Bank card is available only to residents of the country with permanent residence permit in the same region where the bank is located.
- A credit card is available Benefit from Home Credit Bank, if the age “run-up” of borrowers is from 21 to 64 years. Activating it and receiving points from purchases is available to final year students and pensioners upon presentation of a pension certificate.
- Duration labor activity- from three months in last place and from six months - in the overall result. The client must verify his income.
Borrower's source of income requires confirmation in the form of a 2-personal income tax certificate or a bank account statement stable monthly income. This is a prerequisite for the Benefit program from Home Credit Bank.
The presence of contacts by which you can always contact the client is also set as a prerequisite for the bank. This option means mobile and home phone.
Reviews of existing borrowers confirm that without specified numbers telephones where you can be contacted at least indirectly, the percentage of loan disapproval, whether it be a credit card or cash, is much higher.
How to activate a Home Credit card
You cannot start using the Benefit card immediately after the loan agreement has been signed. For the card to function, it must be activated.
For security reasons, the bank initially issues the card in an inactivated state. This makes it more difficult for third parties to get hold of important information.
You can activate your card through hotline or without leaving the bank branch after signing the contract. Credit specialist will help you complete the process of issuing a card. From him you can get information about whether it is possible to activate the card through the Personal Account. And also to clarify whether points are awarded for purchases on the Benefit card.
The operator cannot see the borrower, and therefore for him complete identification the specialist will need such data as the series and number of the passport, the number of the loan agreement, as well as secret information on the card and its number. The bank will need the same documents and the Benefit from Home Credit Bank card.
Home Credit Bank creates a PIN code by calling the hotline, and does not issue it in an opaque envelope along with the card, as is the case in most cases. This institution takes security very seriously. Rules and tips on how to prevent leakage are available on the official website important information when using plastic on normal days.
Loan repayment terms
Home Credit Bank provides several options from which the borrower can choose the one that is convenient for him. Such options will have to be offered to him by a bank specialist who issues a credit card.
- Any post office. However, in terms of enrollment Money this method may take up to five business days.
- Use of third party banks. With this method, a foreign bank charges a commission from the payer.
- Transfer from a current account that is opened in the same bank. For example, if you already have salary card, credit card Benefit will be replenished by the amount of the monthly or minimum payment automatically.
To make it convenient for you to use the card, and the account balance was always known, the bank offers to use additional online services. Mobile bank reflects all transactions carried out on the card with detailed information of the holder via SMS notification. It is always at hand and shows the available balance on the screen of your phone.
Internet banking will allow you to find out more detailed information on credit. The number of remaining payments, total amount debt, due date. Any changes to loan agreement displayed online. Credit card The benefits of Home Credit Bank, reviews of which are mostly positive, are quite affordable loan product to date.
Conclusion
The requirements that bank customers place on a credit card today are much higher. Therefore, Home Credit Benefit stands out in the market of similar services. She offers to make purchases and accumulate points. The conditions are transparent: one point is one ruble. You can easily calculate the benefits of your purchases yourself. To enjoy everyday spending, it is enough to issue and activate a credit card in a convenient way for you.
Credit cards are used by people all over the world. Advice from American experts on the proper possession of credit cards.
Risk of HIV infection through breastfeeding, Benefits of breastfeeding, and Health risks of artificial feeding.
In this post, I will review the benefits of breastfeeding, the level of knowledge regarding the risk of HIV infection, and consider the risks associated with formula feeding.
Breastfeeding is economical and convenient for mothers and reliably provides nutrition to newborns. Breast milk contains all the essential, easily digestible components that a baby needs for at least the first 4 months of life, and usually the first 6 months, and can be an important source of nutrition up to 2 years of age. Nutrients found in breast milk may not be found in other foods and include:
- High quality proteins
- Polyunsaturated fatty acids necessary for the formation of infant brain tissue
- Micronutrients including iron in an easily absorbable form
Breast milk, as a source of immunologically active cells and immunoglobulins, protects the baby from infections. The protective effect of breast milk has been repeatedly studied and is well described in the literature. Available data indicate that breast milk's protective properties are most pronounced against enteric pathogens, some studies highlighting the effectiveness of its components against respiratory infections, sepsis and meningitis, and also contribute to a less severe course of illness in the case of infection of the child.
Quality breastfeeding contributes to the psychosocial development of the child and establishes a close psychological bond with the mother. By prolonging infertility, through amenorrhea and lack of ovulation, or through culturally prescribed sexual abstinence during lactation, breastfeeding also improves maternal health and promotes child survival.
In short, normal breastfeeding is The best way feed the child with benefits that go beyond just reliable feeding and children should not be unnecessarily deprived of it. However, breast milk can be a source of several infections, including cytomegalovirus, human T-lymphocyte type 1 virus (HTML-1) and HIV. HIV has been isolated from the breast milk of HIV-infected women; viral nucleic acids have been identified by polymerase chain reaction in cells and extracellular formations contained in human milk, both in colostrum and in late milk. Specific antibodies to HIV (IgA and IgM) were found in the breast milk of infected mothers, when these antibodies were not yet detected in the blood serum.
Epidemiological evidence for HIV transmission through breastfeeding comes from a variety of sources: environmental comparative studies, group observations, and case histories. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV is consistently higher in populations where breastfeeding is more common. Published studies that compared mother-to-child HIV infection rates among breastfed and formula-fed infants found that infection rates are higher among breastfed infants. Evidence of HIV transmission through breast milk can also be found by closely monitoring the HIV status of breastfed children. These studies have gradually identified HIV infection in children whose polymerase chain reaction tests were negative in the first 3-6 months of life. Additional evidence was obtained from case histories reflecting seroconversion in infants and the emergence of HIV infection in children whose mothers became infected during the postpartum period.
In 1992, a meta-analysis of six studies was published involving approximately 1,800 women diagnosed with HIV infection. These studies compared the risk of HIV infection between breastfeeding and formula-feeding. The estimated difference in transmission risk between breastfeeding and formula feeding was 14% (22 vs 7) in this analysis, i.e. breastfeeding is in an additional way infection, in addition to intrauterine and during delivery. Four of these six studies involved women from industrialized countries where the duration of breastfeeding is shorter. Repeated meta-analysis including three new studies conducted in developing countries was presented at the World Conference on the Prevention of Perinatal Transmission last September. In this analysis, John and colleagues found an additional risk estimated at 17%.
Direct assessment of the risk of infection through breastfeeding has become possible only in the later stages of the postnatal period, when transmission during breastfeeding can be separated from infection that occurred during delivery. These estimates are from monitoring the HIV status of a group of children who were not infected until 3-6 months of age and who were exposed to HIV only through their mothers' breast milk. These studies, which were unable to assess the risk of infection through breastfeeding up to 3-6 months, indicate that after 3-6 months the risk is at least 4-12% and 20% for children who are breastfed up to 24 months. . The latest meta-analysis, including four cohort studies in industrialized countries and four studies in developing countries, showed a 5% risk of late postnatal transmission.
A 1992 meta-analysis of several studies by Dong and colleagues suggests that high risk HIV infection (29%) during breastfeeding occurs if primary HIV infection is diagnosed in the mother during lactation. The duration of breastfeeding is another factor that may modify the risk of transmission through breast milk. In a 1997 meta-analysis, Grace John and colleagues found that women who breastfeed for less than 6 months had an 11% risk of transmission, while that risk increased to 24% for those who breastfed for 6 months or longer.
In addition to recent maternal infection and duration of breastfeeding additional factor The risk of infection is mixed feeding (children who are mixed fed have an intermediate position in the risk of HIV infection among children who are breast-fed or those who receive exclusively artificial nutrition in the first year of life. Other risk factors considered in the scientific literature are immunosuppression at mother ( low level CD4 lymphocytes) and vitamin A deficiency, which are associated with the presence of infected cells in mother's milk, but whose role in HIV transmission has not yet been directly studied. Injuries to the oral mucosa in children, sores on the mother's nipples and mastitis are also associated with the risk of infection in the child. Other factors include the presence of infected cells and the lack of immunoglobulins in breast milk. It has been observed that women with high viral load levels are more likely to drop antiretroviral therapy, although it is not clear whether this phenomenon increases the risk of infection through breastfeeding among women taking AZT during pregnancy.
HIV infection can occur at any time during lactation, but the main question is whether the risk of infection is constant or does it change over time. Since HIV was isolated in colostrum and a high concentration of lymphocytes was found, early hypotheses suggested that colostrum might contain more virus than late milk. However, recent studies have found that between 8 and 90 days postpartum, the concentration of HIV-infected cells is significantly higher in milk than in colostrum. As it turned out, mature milk also contains more free extracellular viruses. However, figures for late postnatal transmission after 3-6 months (5% of the meta-analysis) do not include all cases of presumed infection after 6 months via breastfeeding (24%), still suggesting that early postnatal infection does occur. Still, it is necessary to identify the period during lactation when the risk of infection is highest.
Infection through breastfeeding is an important public health problem, as more than 30% of perinatal infections are directed to this route of HIV transmission. The frequency of HIV transmission attributed to breastfeeding will increase as a short course of AZT therapy, which has a preventive effect before and during childbirth, is carried out. If the additional risk of breastfeeding is estimated at 14%, then for every million HIV-infected breastfeeding women, 140,000 babies could be infected through milk.
The most effective method to avoid infection through breastfeeding is to refuse it. This approach recommended in the US and other countries where the risk of artificial feeding is relatively low. Early weaning is also suggested to promote good artificial nutrition and to minimize the risk of transmission of HIV and other infectious diseases. Further development is needed to determine the optimal breastfeeding period. Using an alternative source of breast milk from another breastfeeding woman or from a milk bank is entirely possible, but care must be taken to ensure that donors are not infected with HIV. The possibility of drug treatment of breast milk is also discussed. In a study of breast milk from an uninfected woman who had been placed with HIV, Orloff and colleagues demonstrated that heat treatment of milk at 62.5 degrees for 30 minutes reduced the titer of both free and cell-bound viruses by more than 50 and 60 times, respectively. Although such processing usually takes place in milk cans, pasteurization is currently not recommended and is unlikely to occur at home. Finally, a theoretical approach to reduce infection through breast milk is the administration of antiretroviral drugs to lactating mothers and/or children as a method of "post-exposure" prophylaxis. However, this point has not yet been fully explored.
When comparing the risks and negative consequences of breastfeeding and non-breastfeeding, we found that the list of problems associated with other types of feeding is longer. However, deciding whether or not to breastfeed is much more difficult than simply comparing two lists. Let's look at the list of problems that arise in the absence of breastfeeding:
In many developing countries, there is an increased risk of infectious diseases and more severe illness among those children who are not breastfed. With artificial feeding, mortality increases by 1.5 - 5 times.
Two studies show that HIV-infected children who are not breastfed have a faster rate of infection progressing to AIDS. The findings are difficult to interpret because the researchers were unable to distinguish between the compared groups in terms of infection time and other factors.
Finally, not breastfeeding is likely to affect the development of the child, causing negative consequences for maternal health and child survival, and in populations where breastfeeding is the norm, a woman who does not breastfeed may be socially stigmatized because she will be suspected of that she is infected.
This list is quite large and I would also like to point out the potential that exists in terms of reducing the risk and negative consequences of not breastfeeding. However, the most main risk and the negative consequence of breastfeeding - HIV infection, if it occurs, the risk of premature death of the child increases. Further research is needed as to whether the nutritional content of the breast milk of an HIV-infected woman can be compared with that of an uninfected woman, i.e., whether newborn babies of HIV-infected mothers receive the same benefits from breastfeeding. Because we need to know what is best for the woman and child as a couple, research is required on the impact of lactation on maternal health in the presence of HIV infection.
Some researchers have tried to create mathematical model, which authorities in health care could use as a guide in different situations assessing the pros and cons of breastfeeding and alternative feeding options. These models are of limited use because of the lack of available information and because they fail to take into account all the factors that influence decision-making about infant feeding policy. I won't go into the details of the methods used, but it's important to mention two points. Models developed by Kuhn and Stein (published in 1997) and previously proposed by Hu et al (1992) have shown that under certain circumstances (i.e. when there is a relatively high risk of mortality from not breastfeeding, which is the case in many developing countries) failure to breastfeed the entire population always leads to the worst consequences (the most high level mortality for children under 5 years of age). These results protect and promote breastfeeding among uninfected children. Modeling that is currently underway is investigating whether not breastfeeding an HIV-infected woman may be more preventive than interventions such as AZT, which reduce the risk of HIV infection during pregnancy and childbirth.
If we look at breastfeeding policies, we also need to look at the data that is currently missing. Some of them are listed below:
- Timing of HIV infection through breastfeeding
- transmission mechanisms
- Efficacy of short-term AZT therapy in breastfeeding women
- Effect of antiretroviral treatment on viral load in breast milk
- Best baby food options for HIV-infected women in different settings
- Ways to Reduce the Risk of Alternative Feedings
- Obstacles to Acceptance and Following different options infant feeding
In summary, HIV infection through breastfeeding is a significant mode of transmission and therefore preventive strategies are needed to address this problem. However, breastfeeding is necessary for all children, which complicates the problem. The ability to address HIV transmission through breastfeeding without increasing mortality from other causes depends on: (1) intervention programs targeting HIV-infected women and (2) reducing the risk of other infant feeding practices.
Dr. Gene Bertholli,
Center for Disease Control and Prevention