When was the New Economic Policy introduced? NEP is the country's new economic policy. Reasons for the introduction and essence of the NEP. Chronological framework of the NEP

NEP (New Economic Policy) was carried out by the Soviet government from 1921 to 1928. This was an attempt to bring the country out of the crisis and give impetus to the development of the economy and Agriculture. But the results of the NEP turned out to be terrible, and ultimately Stalin had to hastily interrupt this process to create industrialization, since the NEP policy almost completely killed heavy industry.

Reasons for introducing the NEP

With the beginning of the winter of 1920, the RSFSR plunged into a terrible crisis. It was largely due to the fact that in 1921-1922 there was a famine in the country. The Volga region suffered mainly (we all remember the infamous phrase " Starving Volga region"). Added to this was the economic crisis, as well as popular uprisings against the Soviet regime. No matter how many textbooks told us that people greeted the power of the Soviets with applause, this was not so. For example, uprisings took place in Siberia, on the Don, in the Kuban, and the largest - in Tambov. It went down in history under the name Antonov uprising or "Antonovschina". In the spring of 21, about 200 thousand people were involved in the uprising. Considering that the Red Army at that time was extremely weak, then this was a very serious threat for the regime. Then the Kronstadt rebellion was born. At the cost of effort, but all these revolutionary elements were suppressed, but it became obvious that it was necessary to change the approach to governing the country. And the right conclusions were drawn. Lenin formulated them as follows:

The driving force of socialism is the proletariat, which means the peasants. That's why Soviet authority must learn to get along with them.
it is necessary to create a unified party system in the country and destroy any dissent.

This is precisely the essence of the NEP - “Economic liberalization under strict political control.”

In general, all the reasons for the introduction of the NEP can be divided into ECONOMIC (the country needed an impetus for economic development), SOCIAL (social division was still extremely acute) and POLITICAL (new economic policy became a means of power control).

Beginning of the NEP

The main stages of the introduction of the NEP in the USSR:

Decision of the 10th Congress of the Bolshevik Party of 1921.
Replacement of appropriation with a tax (in fact, this was the introduction of the NEP). Decree of March 21, 1921.
Allowing free exchange of agricultural products. Decree March 28, 1921.
Creation of cooperatives, which were destroyed in 1917. Decree of April 7, 1921.
Transfer of some industry from state hands to private hands. Decree May 17, 1921.
Creating conditions for development private trade. Decree May 24, 1921.
Permission to TEMPORARILY provide the opportunity for private owners to rent state enterprises. Decree July 5, 1921.
Permission for private capital to create any enterprise (including industrial) with a staff of up to 20 people. If the enterprise is mechanized - no more than 10. Decree of July 7, 1921.
Adoption of a “liberal” Land Code. He allowed not only the rental of land, but also wage labor on it. Decree of October 1922.

The ideological foundation of the NEP was laid at the 10th Congress of the RCP (b), which met in 1921 (if you remember, its participants went straight from this congress of delegates to suppress the Kronstadt rebellion), adopted the NEP and introduced a ban on “dissent” in the RCP (b). The fact is that before 1921 there were different factions in the RCP (b). This was allowed. According to logic, and this logic is absolutely correct, if economic relief is introduced, then within the party there must be a monolith. Therefore, there are no factions or divisions.

The ideological concept of the NEP was first given by V.I. Lenin. This happened at a speech at the tenth and eleventh congresses of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, which took place in 1921 and 1922, respectively. Also, the justification for the New Economic Policy was made at the third and fourth congresses of the Comintern, which also took place in 1921 and 1922. In addition, Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin played a major role in formulating the tasks of the NEP. It is important to remember that for a long time Bukharin and Lenin acted as opposition to each other on NEP issues. Lenin proceeded from the fact that the time had come to ease the pressure on the peasants and “make peace” with them. But Lenin was going to get along with the peasants not forever, but for 5-10 years. Therefore, the majority of members of the Bolshevik Party were sure that the NEP, as a forced measure, was being introduced for just one grain procurement company, as a deception for the peasantry. But Lenin especially emphasized that the NEP course is taken for a more long term. And then Lenin said a phrase that showed that the Bolsheviks were keeping their word - “but we will return to terror, including economic terror.” If we remember the events of 1929, then this is exactly what the Bolsheviks did. The name of this terror is Collectivization.

The New Economic Policy was designed for 5, maximum 10 years. And it certainly fulfilled its task, although at some point it threatened the existence of the Soviet Union.

Briefly, the NEP, according to Lenin, is a bond between the peasantry and the proletariat. This is precisely what formed the basis of the events of those days - if you are against the bond between the peasantry and the proletariat, then you are an opponent of the workers’ power, the Soviets and the USSR. The problems of this bond became a problem for the survival of the Bolshevik regime, because the regime simply did not have the army or equipment to crush the peasant revolts if they began en masse and in an organized manner. That is, some historians say that the NEP is the Brest peace of the Bolsheviks with their own people. That is, what kind of Bolsheviks are the International Socialists who wanted a world revolution. Let me remind you that it was this idea that Trotsky promoted. First, Lenin, who was not a very great theorist, (he was a good practitioner), he defined the NEP as state capitalism. And immediately for this he received a full portion of criticism from Bukharin and Trotsky. And after this, Lenin began to interpret the NEP as a mixture of Socialist and capitalist forms. I repeat - Lenin was not a theorist, but a practitioner. He lived by the principle - it is important for us to take power, but what it will be called is unimportant.

Lenin, in fact, accepted Bukharin’s version of the NEP with its wording and other attributes..

The NEP is a socialist dictatorship based on socialist production relations and regulating the broad petty-bourgeois organization of the economy.
Lenin

According to the logic of this definition, the main task facing the leadership of the USSR was the destruction of the petty-bourgeois economy. Let me remind you that the Bolsheviks called peasant farming petty-bourgeois. You need to understand that by 1922 the building of socialism had reached a dead end and Lenin realized that this movement could only be continued through the NEP. It is clear that this is not the main path, and it contradicted Marxism, but as a workaround it was quite suitable. And Lenin constantly emphasized that the new policy was a temporary phenomenon.

General characteristics of NEP

The totality of the NEP:

rejection of labor mobilization and an equal wage system for all.
transfer (partial, of course) of industry into private hands from state ones (denationalization).
creation of new economic associations - trusts and syndicates. Widespread introduction of self-financing
the formation of enterprises in the country at the expense of capitalism and the bourgeoisie, including the Western one.

Looking ahead, I will say that the NEP led to the fact that many idealistic Bolsheviks shot themselves in the forehead. They believed that capitalism was being restored, and they shed blood in vain during the Civil War. But the non-idealistic Bolsheviks used the NEP very well, because during the NEP it was easy to launder what was stolen during the Civil War. Because, as we will see, NEP is a triangle: it is the head of a separate link of the party’s Central Committee, the head of a syndicator or trust, and also NEPman as a “huckster,” in modern language, through whom this whole process takes place. In general, this was a corruption scheme from the very beginning, but the NEP was a forced measure - the Bolsheviks would not have retained power without it.

NEP in trade and finance

Development credit system. In 1921, a state bank was created.
Reforming financial and monetary system THE USSR. It was achieved through the reform of 1922 (monetary) and the replacement of money of 1922-1924.
The emphasis is on private (retail) trade and the development of various markets, including the All-Russian one.

If we try to briefly characterize the NEP, then this design was extremely unreliable. It took ugly forms of merging the personal interests of the country's leadership and everyone who was involved in the "Triangle". Each of them played their role. The menial work was done by the NEP man speculator. And this was especially emphasized in Soviet textbooks, saying that it was all private traders who ruined the NEP, and we fought against them as best we could. But in fact, the NEP led to colossal corruption of the party. This was one of the reasons for the abolition of the NEP, because if it had been maintained further, the party would simply have completely disintegrated.

Beginning in 1921, the Soviet leadership set a course towards weakening Centralization. In addition, much attention was paid to the element of reforming economic systems in the country. Labor mobilizations were replaced by labor exchanges (unemployment was high). Equalization was abolished, the card system was abolished (but for some, the card system was a salvation). It is logical that the results of the NEP almost immediately had a positive impact on trade. Naturally in retail trade. Already at the end of 1921, the Nepmen controlled 75% of trade turnover in retail trade and 18% in wholesale trade. NEPism has become a profitable form of money laundering, especially for those who looted a lot during the civil war. Their loot lay idle, and now it could be sold through the NEPmen. And many people laundered their money this way.

NEP in agriculture

Adoption of the Land Code. (22nd year). Transformation of the tax in kind into a single agricultural tax since 1923 (since 1926, entirely in cash).
Agricultural cooperation cooperation.
Equal (fair) exchange between agriculture and industry. But this was not achieved, as a result of which the so-called “price scissors” appeared.

At the bottom of society, the party leadership's turn to the NEP did not find much support. Many members of the Bolshevik Party were sure that this was a mistake and a transition from socialism to capitalism. Someone simply sabotaged the decision of the NEP, and those who were especially ideological even committed suicide. In October 1922, the New Economic Policy affected agriculture - the Bolsheviks began implementing the Land Code with new amendments. Its difference was that it legalized wage labor in the countryside (it would seem that the Soviet government was fighting precisely against this, but it did the same thing itself). The next stage occurred in 1923. This year, what many had been waiting for and demanding for so long happened - the tax in kind was replaced by an agricultural tax. In 1926, this tax began to be collected entirely in cash.

In general, the NEP was not an absolute triumph economic methods, as it was sometimes written in Soviet textbooks. It was only outwardly a triumph of economic methods. In fact, there was a lot of other things there. And I don’t just mean the so-called excesses of local authorities. The fact is that a significant part of the peasant product was alienated in the form of taxes, and taxation was excessive. Another thing is that the peasant got the opportunity to breathe freely, and this solved some problems. And here the absolutely unfair exchange between agriculture and industry, the formation of the so-called “price scissors,” came to the fore. The regime increased prices for industrial products and decreased prices for agricultural products. As a result, in 1923-1924 the peasants worked for practically nothing! The laws were such that the peasants were forced to sell approximately 70% of everything that the village produced for next to nothing. 30% of the product they produced was taken by the state market value, and 70% underestimated. Then this figure decreased, and it became approximately 50/50. But in any case, this is a lot. 50% of products are priced below the market price.

As a result, the worst happened - the market ceased to fulfill its direct functions as a means of buying and selling goods. Now it has become an effective means of exploiting the peasants. Only half of the peasant goods were purchased with money, and the other half was collected in the form of tribute (this is the most accurate definition of what happened in those years). The NEP can be characterized as follows: corruption, a swollen apparatus, massive theft of state property. The result was a situation where production products peasant farm were used irrationally, and often the peasants themselves were not interested in high yields. This was a logical consequence of what was happening, because the NEP was initially an ugly design.

NEP in industry

The main features that characterize the New Economic Policy from the point of view of industry are the almost complete lack of development of this industry and the huge level of unemployment among ordinary people.

The NEP was initially supposed to establish interaction between city and village, between workers and peasants. But it was not possible to do this. The reason is that industry was almost completely destroyed as a result of the Civil War, and it was not able to offer anything significant to the peasantry. The peasantry did not sell their grain, because why sell if you can’t buy anything with money anyway. They simply stored the grain and did not buy anything. Therefore, there was no incentive for the development of industry. It turned out to be such a “vicious circle”. And in 1927-1928, everyone already understood that the NEP had outlived its usefulness, that it did not provide an incentive for the development of industry, but, on the contrary, destroyed it even more.

At the same time, it became clear that sooner or later a new war was coming in Europe. Here is what Stalin said about this in 1931:

If in the next 10 years we do not cover the path that the West has covered in 100 years, we will be destroyed and crushed.
Stalin

If you say in simple words- in 10 years it was necessary to raise industry from the ruins and put it on a par with the most developed countries. The NEP did not allow this to be done, because it was focused on light industry and on Russia being a raw materials appendage of the West. That is, in this regard, the implementation of the NEP was ballast, which slowly but surely dragged Russia to the bottom, and if this course had been maintained for another 5 years, it is unknown how World War 2 would have ended.

The slow pace of industrial growth in the 1920s caused a sharp rise in unemployment. If in 1923-1924 there were 1 million unemployed in the city, then in 1927-1928 there were already 2 million unemployed. The logical consequence of this phenomenon is a huge increase in crime and discontent in cities. For those who worked, of course, the situation was normal. But overall the situation of the working class was very difficult.

Development of the USSR economy during the NEP period

Economic booms alternated with crises. Everyone knows the crises of 1923, 1925 and 1928, which also led to famine in the country.
Absence unified system development of the country's economy. The NEP crippled the economy. It did not provide an opportunity for the development of industry, but agriculture could not develop under such conditions. These 2 spheres slowed each other down, although the opposite was planned.
The grain procurement crisis of 1927-28 28 and, as a result, the course to curtail the NEP.

The most important part of the NEP, by the way, one of the few positive features of this policy, is the “lifting of the financial system from its knees.” Let’s not forget that the Civil War has just ended, which almost completely destroyed the Russian financial system. Prices in 1921 compared to 1913 increased 200 thousand times. Just think about this number. Over 8 years, 200 thousand times... Naturally, it was necessary to introduce other money. Reform was needed. The reform was carried out by People's Commissar of Finance Sokolnikov, who was assisted by a group of old specialists. In October 1921 he began his work National Bank. As a result of his work, in the period from 1922 to 1924, depreciated Soviet money was replaced by Chervontsy

The chervonets was backed by gold, the content of which corresponded to the pre-revolutionary ten-ruble coin, and cost 6 American dollars. Chervonets was backed by both our gold and foreign currency.
Historical reference

Sovznak were withdrawn and exchanged at the rate of 1 new ruble 50,000 old signs. This money was called “Sovznaki”. During the NEP, cooperation actively developed and economic liberalization was accompanied by the strengthening of communist power. The repressive apparatus also strengthened. And how did this happen? For example, on June 6, 22, GlavLit was created. This is censorship and establishing control over censorship. A year later, GlavRepedKom emerged, which was in charge of the theater’s repertoire. In 1922, by decision of this body, more than 100 people, active cultural figures, were expelled from the USSR. Others were less fortunate and were sent to Siberia. The teaching of bourgeois disciplines was banned in schools: philosophy, logic, history. In 1936 everything was restored. Also, the Bolsheviks and the church did not ignore them. In October 1922, the Bolsheviks confiscated jewelry from the church, supposedly to fight hunger. In June 1923, Patriarch Tikhon recognized the legitimacy of Soviet power, and in 1925 he was arrested and died. A new patriarch was no longer elected. The patriarchate was then restored by Stalin in 1943.

On February 6, 1922, the Cheka was transformed into the state political department of the GPU. From emergency ones, these bodies turned into state, regular ones.

The NEP culminated in 1925. Bukharin addressed an appeal to the peasantry (primarily to the wealthy peasants).

Get rich, accumulate, develop your farm.
Bukharin

At the 14th party conference, Bukharin's plan was adopted. He was actively supported by Stalin, and criticized by Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev. Economic development during the NEP period it was uneven: sometimes a crisis, sometimes a rise. And this was due to the fact that the necessary balance between the development of agriculture and the development of industry was not found. The grain procurement crisis of 1925 was the first sound of the bell on the NEP. It became clear that the NEP would soon end, but due to inertia it continued for several more years.

Cancellation of NEP - reasons for cancellation

July and November plenum of the Central Committee of 1928. Plenum of the Central Committee of the Party and the Central Control Commission (to which one could complain about the Central Committee) April 1929.
reasons for the abolition of the NEP (economic, social, political).
was the NEP an alternative to real communism.

In 1926, the 15th party conference of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) met. It condemned the Trotskyist-Zinovievist opposition. Let me remind you that this opposition actually called for a war with the peasantry - to take away from them what the authorities need and what the peasants are hiding. Stalin sharply criticized this idea, and also directly voiced the position that the current policy had outlived its usefulness, and the country needed a new approach to development, an approach that would allow the restoration of industry, without which the USSR could not exist.

Since 1926, a tendency towards the abolition of the NEP gradually begins to emerge. In 1926-27, grain reserves for the first time exceeded pre-war levels and amounted to 160 million tons. But the peasants still did not sell bread, and industry was suffocating from overexertion. The left opposition (its ideological leader was Trotsky) proposed confiscating 150 million poods of grain from wealthy peasants, who made up 10% of the population, but the leadership of the CPSU (b) did not agree to this, because this would mean a concession to the left opposition.

Throughout 1927, the Stalinist leadership conducted maneuvers to completely eliminate the left opposition, because without this it was impossible to resolve the peasant question. Any attempt to put pressure on the peasants would mean that the party has taken the path that the “Left Wing” is talking about. At the 15th Congress, Zinoviev, Trotsky and other left oppositionists were expelled from the Central Committee. However, after they repented (this was called in party language “disarming before the party”) they were returned, because the Stalinist center needed them for the future fight against the Bucharest team.

The struggle for the abolition of the NEP unfolded as a struggle for industrialization. This was logical, because industrialization was task number 1 for the self-preservation of the Soviet state. Therefore, the results of the NEP can be briefly summarized as follows: the ugly economic system created many problems that could only be solved thanks to industrialization.

Acceptance at X Congress of the RCP (b) The decision to replace the surplus appropriation system with a tax in kind is the starting point in the transition from the policy of “war communism” to a new economic system, to the NEP.

V.I. Lenin and K.E. Voroshilov among the delegates of the X Congress of the RCP (b). 1921

It is quite obvious that the introduction of a tax in kind is not the only characteristic of the NEP, which became a definite feature for the Soviet country. system of political and economic measures carried out over almost a decade. But these were the first steps, and taken very carefully. Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of March 29, 1921 Was installed grain tax in the amount of 240 million poods (with an average harvest) instead of 423 million poods during the 1920 allocation.

Peasants were given the opportunity to sell their surplus products on the market.

For V.I. For Lenin, as for all Bolsheviks, this entailed a deep revision of his own ideas about the incompatibility of socialism and private trade. Already in May 1921, 2 months after the X Congress, the X Extraordinary Party Conference was convened to discuss the new course. There could no longer be any doubt - the course, as Lenin specified, was taken “seriously and for a long time.” It was " reformist” method of action, the rejection of the revolutionary Red Guard attack on capital, this was the “admission” of elements of the capitalist economy into socialism.

V.I. Lenin in his office. October 1922

To form a market and establish trade exchanges, it was necessary to revive industry and increase the output of its products. There have been radical changes in industrial management. Trusts were created - associations of homogeneous or interconnected enterprises that received full economic and financial independence, up to the right to issue long-term bond issues. By the end of 1922, about 90% of industrial enterprises were united into trusts.

N.A. Berdyaev.

S.L. Frank, L.P. Karsavin; historians A.A. Kiesewetter, S.P. Melgunov, A.V. Florovsky; economist B.D. Brutzkus et al.

Particular emphasis is placed on eliminating Menshevik and Socialist Revolutionary parties, in 1922 arrests became widespread. By this time RKP (b) stayed the only legal political party in the country.

The New Economic Policy combined two contradictory trends from the very beginning: one - to liberalize the economy, the other - to maintain the Communist Party's monopoly on power. These contradictions could not help but be seen by V.I. Lenin and other party leaders.

Formed in the 20s. The NEP system, therefore, was supposed to promote restoration and development of the national economy, which collapsed during the years of imperialist and civil wars, but at the same time this system initially contained internal inconsistency, which inevitably led to deep crises, directly resulting from the nature and essence of NEP.

The first steps in liberalizing the economy and introducing market relations contributed to solving the problem restoration of the national economy country destroyed by civil war. A clear rise was evident by the beginning of 1922. The implementation of the plan began GOELRO.

V.I. Lenin at the GOELRO map. VIII All-Russian Congress of Soviets. December 1920 Hood. L. Shmatko. 1957

Railway transport began to emerge from its state of devastation, and train traffic was restored throughout the country. By 1925, large-scale industry had reached the level of 1913. The Nizhny Novgorod, Shaturskaya, Yaroslavl, and Volkhov hydroelectric power stations were launched.

Launch of the 1st stage of Kashirskaya GRES. 1922

The Putilov Machine-Building Plant in Petrograd, and then the Kharkov and Kolomensky plants began to produce tractors, and the Moscow AMO Plant - trucks.

For the period 1921 - 1924. gross output of large state industry increased more than 2 times.

The rise in agriculture has begun. In 1921 - 1922 the state received 233 million poods of grain, in 1922 - 1923 - 429.6 million, in 1923 - 1924 - 397, in 1925 - 1926 - 496 million poods. State procurements of butter increased 3.1 times, eggs - 6 times.

The transition to a tax in kind improved the socio-political situation in the village. In the information reports of the Central Committee of the RCP (b), dating back to the summer of 1921, it was reported: “Peasants everywhere are increasing the area under cultivation, armed uprisings have subsided, the attitude of the peasants is changing in favor of the Soviet government.”

But the first successes were prevented emergency disasters, which hit the main grain-producing regions of the country. 25 provinces of the Volga region, Don, North Caucasus and Ukraine were struck by severe drought, which, in the conditions of the post-war food crisis, led to famine that claimed about 6% of the population. The fight against hunger was carried out as a broad state campaign with the involvement of enterprises, organizations, the Red Army, and international organizations (ARA, Mezhrabpom).

In the famine-stricken areas, martial law, introduced there during the civil war, remained, the threat of rebellion became real, and banditry intensified.

On first plan a new problem arises. The peasantry showed its dissatisfaction with the in-kind tax rate, which turned out to be unbearable.

In the GPU reports for 1922 “On the political state of the Russian village”, the extremely negative impact of the tax in kind on financial situation peasants Local authorities took drastic measures against debtors, including repression. In some provinces, an inventory of property, arrests and trials were carried out. Such measures met active resistance from the peasants. For example, residents of one of the villages in the Tver province shot a detachment of Red Army soldiers who had arrived to collect taxes.

According to the decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars “On a single natural tax on agricultural products for 1922-1923.” dated March 17, 1922, instead of a whole variety of food taxes, single tax in kind, which presupposed the unity of the salary sheet, payment periods and a common unit of calculation - a peck of rye.

IN May 1922 All-Russian Central Executive Committee accepted Basic Law on Labor Land Use, the content of which later, almost without changes, formed the basis of the Land Code of the RSFSR, approved on October 30 and came into force on December 1 of the same year. Within the framework of state ownership of land, confirmed by the code, peasants were given freedom to choose forms of land use up to the organization of individual farms.

The development of individual farms in the village led to strengthening class stratification. As a result, low-capacity farms found themselves in a difficult situation. In 1922, the Central Committee of the RCP (b) began to receive information about the spread of the system enslaving deals in the village. This meant that the poor, in order to get a loan or equipment from the kulaks, were forced to pawn their crops “on the ground” for next to nothing. These phenomena are also the face of NEP in the countryside.

In general, the first years of the NEP became a serious test of the new course, since the difficulties that arose were due not only to the consequences of the poor harvest of 1921, but also to the complexity of restructuring the entire system economic relations in the country.

Spring 1922 erupted financial crisis, directly related to the introduction of capitalist forms of economy.

The decrees of the Council of People's Commissars of 1921 on free trade and the denationalization of enterprises marked the abandonment of the policy of “communist” distribution. So they came back to life banknotes as an integral part of free enterprise and trade. As M. Bulgakov wrote, at the end of 1921, “trillionaires” appeared in Moscow, i.e. people who had trillions of rubles. Astronomical figures became a reality because it became possible to buy goods with them, but this opportunity was limited by the constant depreciation of the ruble, which naturally narrowed the possibilities of free trade and the market.

At this time, a new Nepman entrepreneur, a “Soviet capitalist,” also showed himself, who, in conditions of a commodity shortage, inevitably became an ordinary reseller and speculator.

Strastnaya (now Pushkinskaya) Square. 1920s

IN AND. Lenin, assessing the speculation, said that “the car breaks out of your hands, it doesn’t drive exactly as the one who sits at the helm of this car imagines.”

The communists recognized that the old world had burst in with buying and selling, clerks, speculators - with what they had only recently fought against. There were added problems with state industry, which was removed from state supplies and actually left without working capital. As a result, workers either joined the army of unemployed or did not receive wages for several months.

The situation in industry has become seriously complicated in 1923 - early 1924, when there was a sharp decline in the growth rate of industrial production, which led, in turn, to the massive closure of enterprises, increased unemployment, and the emergence of a strike movement that swept the entire country.

The causes of the crisis that struck the country's economy in 1923 became the subject of discussion at XII Congress of the RCP (b), held in April 1923. “Price scissors crisis” - that’s what they began to call him after the famous diagram that L.D. Trotsky, who spoke about this phenomenon, showed it to the delegates of the congress. The crisis was associated with the divergence in prices for industrial and agricultural goods (this was called “price scissors”). This happened because during the restoration period the village was ahead in terms of the scale and pace of restoration. Handicraft and private production grew faster than large-scale industry. By mid-1923, agriculture had been restored to 70% of its pre-war level, and large-scale industry by only 39%.

Discussion on the problem “ scissors” took place at October Plenum of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) in 1923. A decision was made to lower prices for industrial goods, which certainly prevented the deepening of the crisis, which created a serious threat of social explosion in the country.

The entire socio-political crisis that struck the USSR in 1923 cannot be limited only to the narrow framework of the “price scissors” problem. Unfortunately, the problem was even more serious than it might seem at first glance. Serious contradiction between the government and the people, who was dissatisfied with the policies of the authorities, the policies of the Communist Party. Both the working class and the peasantry expressed their protest both in the form of passive resistance and active protests against the Soviet regime.

IN 1923. many provinces of the country were covered strike movements. The OGPU reports “On the Political State of the USSR” highlighted a whole range of reasons: these are long-term delays wages, her low level, increasing production standards, staff reductions, mass layoffs. The most acute unrest occurred at textile enterprises in Moscow, at metallurgical enterprises in the Urals, Primorye, Petrograd, and in railway and water transport.

1923 was also difficult for the peasantry. The defining moment in the mood of the peasantry was dissatisfaction with excessive high level single tax and “price scissors”. In some areas of the Primorsky and Transbaikal provinces, in the Mountain Republic (North Caucasus), peasants generally refused to pay the tax. Many peasants were forced to sell their livestock and even equipment to pay the tax. There was a threat of famine. In the Murmansk, Pskov, and Arkhangelsk provinces they have already begun to use surrogates for food: moss, fish bones, straw. Banditry became a real threat (in Siberia, Transbaikalia, the North Caucasus, and Ukraine).

The socio-economic and political crisis could not but affect the position of the party.

On October 8, 1923, Trotsky outlined his point of view on the causes of the crisis and ways out of it. Trotsky’s conviction that “chaos comes from above,” that the crisis was based on subjective reasons, was shared by many heads of economic departments and organizations.

This position of Trotsky was condemned by the majority of members of the Central Committee of the RCP (b), and then he turned to the party masses. December 11, 1923 V " Truth” Trotsky’s “Letter to Party Conferences” was published, where he accused the party of bureaucratic degeneration. For a whole month from mid-December 1923 to mid-January 1924, 2-3 pages of Pravda were filled with discussion articles and materials.

The difficulties that arose as the NEP developed and deepened in the first half of the 20s inevitably led to internal party disputes. Emerging “ left direction”, defended by Trotsky and his supporters, actually reflected disbelief of a certain part of communists in the prospects of NEP in the country.

At the VIII All-Union Party Conference, the results of the discussion were summed up and a detailed resolution was adopted, condemning Trotsky and his supporters for their petty-bourgeois deviation. Accusations of factionalism, anti-Bolshevism, and revisions of Leninism shook his authority and marked the beginning of the collapse of his political career.

IN 1923 In connection with Lenin’s illness, there is a gradual process of concentration of power in the hands of the main “ threes“Central Committee: Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev. In order to exclude opposition within the party in the future, the seventh paragraph of the resolution “On Party Unity,” adopted at the Tenth Congress and until that time kept secret, was made public at the conference.

Farewell to V.I. Lenin. January 1924 Hood. S. Boim. 1952

While Lenin actually headed the party, his authority in it was indisputable. Therefore, the struggle for power between representatives of the political trends emerging in connection with the transition to NEP could only have the nature of hidden rivalry.

WITH 1922., when I.V. Stalin took office General Secretary of the RCP(b), he gradually placed his supporters in key positions in the party apparatus.

At the XIII Congress of the RCP (b) on May 23-31, 1924, two trends in the development of Soviet society were clearly noted: “one is capitalist, when capital accumulates at one pole, wage labor and poverty at the other; the other - through the most understandable, accessible forms of cooperation - to socialism.”

WITH end of 1924. the course begins facing the village”, elected by the party as a result of the growing dissatisfaction of the peasantry with the policies being pursued, the emergence of mass demands for the creation of a peasant party (the so-called Peasant Union), which, unlike the RCP (b), would protect the interests of peasants, resolve tax issues, and contribute to the deepening and expansion of private property in the countryside.

The developer and ideologist of the “village NEP” was N.I. Bukharin, who believed that it was necessary to move from a policy of tactical concessions to the peasantry to a sustainable course economic reforms, because, as he said, “we have NEP in the city, we have NEP in relations between city and countryside, but we do not have NEP in the village itself.”

Bukharin made a justification for a new turn in economic policy in the village April 17, 1925. at a meeting of the Moscow party activists, a week later this report in the form of an article was published in Pravda. It was in this report that Bukharin uttered the famous phrase, appealing to the entire peasantry: “ Get rich!”.

This course received practical implementation at the April 1925 Plenum of the Central Committee of the RCP (b), which recorded that “along with the development of market relations in the countryside, as well as the strengthening of trade relations with the city and the foreign market, the strengthening of the bulk of the middle peasant farms with simultaneous growth (by at least, for the coming years) on one side of the wealthy strata of the village, highlighting the capitalist elements (merchants) and on the other - farm laborers and the rural poor.”

And in December 1925. took place XIV Congress, where the course was officially approved for the victory of socialism in the USSR.

The working delegations of Moscow and Donbass welcome the XIV Party Congress. Hood. Yu. Tsyganov

K.E. Voroshilov and M.V. Frunze during the parade on Red Square on May 1, 1925

The congress called this “the main task of our party” and emphasized that “there is an economic offensive of the proletariat on the basis of the new economic policy and the advancement of the USSR economy towards socialism, and state socialist industry is increasingly becoming the vanguard of the national economy,” therefore, “it is necessary to prioritize set the task of the victory of socialist economic forms over private capital.”

Thus, XIV Congress of the RCP (b) became a kind of milestone in reorienting the party's policy towards strengthening socialist principles in the economy.

Nevertheless, the beginning of the second half of the 20s. everything still took place under the sign of the preservation and development of NEP principles. But the grain procurement crisis of the winter of 1927-1928. created real threat industrial construction plans, complicating the overall economic situation in the country.

In determining the fate of NEP in the established economic conditions two groups of the country's political leadership collided. The first, Bukharin, Rykov, Pyatakov, Tomsky, Smilga and other supporters of the active growth of agriculture, the deepening of the NEP in the countryside, lost the ideological battle to the other - Stalin and his supporters (Molotov, Voroshilov, Kaganovich, etc.), who by that time had achieved a majority in the country's political leadership.

In January 1928, Stalin proposed to expand the construction of collective and state farms to stabilize grain procurements. Stalin's speech in July 1928, published only a few years later, emphasized that the policy NEP has reached a dead end that the bitterness of the class struggle is explained by the increasingly desperate resistance of capitalist elements, that the peasantry will have to spend money on the needs of industrialization.

Bukharin, in his own words, was “horrified” by the General Secretary’s conclusions and tried to organize controversy by publishing “Notes of an Economist” on September 30, 1928 in Pravda, where he outlined economic program opposition (Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky made up the so-called “right opposition”). The author of the article explained the crisis by errors in planning, pricing, unpreparedness of agricultural cooperation and advocated a return to economic and financial measures impact on the market under the NEP.

IN November 1928. The plenum of the Central Committee unanimously condemned “ right bias”, Bukharin, Rykov, and Tomsky, who were guided by the desire to preserve the unity of the party, dissociated themselves from him. In the same month, the party and state bodies made a decision on speeding up collectivization processes.

In 1929, in Ukraine and the RSFSR, emergency measures were legitimized to limit the free sale of grain, priority was established for the sale of grain under state obligations, and a policy of expropriation of the merchant class as a class began to be implemented. The country is entering the 1st Five-Year Plan, the plans of which provide for an accelerated pace of industrialization and collectivization of the country. And in these plans already There is no place.

In the many years of struggle between socialist and market principles, victory was directed from above, the party leadership of the country, who made their final choice in favor of socialism.

However, giving decisive importance to the subjective factor - the volitional actions of Stalin and his entourage, who were focused on accelerated socialist industrialization, cannot be the only explanation for the “death of NEP” in the USSR.

The actual practice of implementing this policy throughout the 20s. identifies and objective factor- i.e. those contradictions and crises that were inherent in the very nature of NEP. The interweaving of market and administrative command principles of management, maneuvering between the market and the directive economy determined the “turn” 1929. This year has actually become the end of the new economic policy carried out by the party and the government during the recovery period. At this time there were undoubted successes, losses, phenomena of stabilization, and internal crises. But the positive, constructive transformations of the 20s. undoubtedly related to the more flexible strategy and tactics of the NEP compared to the policy of the total regime of the subsequent “Stalinist” decades.

transfer of state property (industrial and transport enterprises, shares, etc.) resulting from nationalization into private ownership. In June - July 1918, Komuch and Vr. announced their desire to develop banks and enterprises. Sib. pr-vo, spreading influence on the department. districts of U., August 19. Vr. made a similar declaration. region pr-in U. True, in the department. In cases where the interests of the state required it, the government retained the right to declare enterprises national. property. Held 18-22 Oct. 1st Lv. trade-industry The congress developed a program for the restoration of capitalist orders in industry. and trade., adopted a resolution on their D. After the White Guard coup in Omsk (11/18/1918), allegiance to the previously put forward idea of D. was confirmed by All Russia. under Admiral A.V. Kolchak. In the Ministry of Trade and Industry and other departments began work on the preparation of legal documents justifying the conduct of the D. In February. 1919 under Vseros. The position of Commissioner for D. of U. enterprises with a staff of employees was established by the head of Admiral A.V. Kolchak. The implementation of D. in practice was, according to Ur. prom. By the way, a very difficult task. Among the reasons that made it difficult for D. were the following: the absence of owners and members. boards of large enterprises; the need for large mat. costs on the part of entrepreneurs restored to their property rights to bring their buildings and facilities into working condition; unresolved financial relationships between the state. authorities and entrepreneurs, etc. Taking into account the existing difficulties, Ur. prom. The committee spoke out in favor of temporarily maintaining enterprises under government control through the representatives of plant management commissioners. According to Gl. Chief of Ur. edge of S.S. Postnikov (April 1919), “D., even preparatory calculations, have not yet begun.” There were only departments. facts of the return of enterprises (mainly of little significance for the state) to their former owners. Naib. lat. Dimensions in the region D. took on river transport. By May 20, 1919 in Perm. In the region, 81% of steam and 97% of non-steam vessels were returned to private ownership; in the Ufa region, 36% and 46.5%, respectively. Slowness in resolving the issue of ownership sometimes led to unauthorized actions by the former owners to restore their property rights. After the retreat of the Kolchak army. and restoration of owls. authorities in Ukraine, in the fall of 1919, denationalized enterprises passed back into the hands of the state. However, the transition to the New Economic Policy in 1921 led to a new stage in D. Nater. U. (together with Bashk.) was transferred into the hands of private entrepreneurs on a lease basis of approx. 200 enterprises, mainly Wed and small industrial With the adoption of the NEP Sov. authorities in the U. also allowed the lease of a number of heavy industry enterprises (Bilimbayevsky, Staroutkinsky, Nyazepetrovsky, Sysertsky, Ilyinsky plants, an iron foundry at the Khrompik station, a mechanical workshop of the Kyshtym plant, a number of workshops in Nizhne-Tagil and Visimo- Utkinsky plant, etc.). A number of objects were received by foreign capitalists in the form of concessions. In 1921, A. Hammer’s American concession for the extraction and processing of asbestos in the Alapaevsky district was the first to be organized in the U.S. and in the country. The English gold industry emerged. concession "Lena Golffields Limited", Latvian concession of Strukovich for marble mining in the Polevsky district. In total, in 1927 there were 12 concession enterprises operating in the Ukraine. Cooperative private capitalist and concession sector in the factory industry. U. in 1926-27 households. covered 22.2% in general. small enterprises and provided only 7.3% of production. Number of workers they accounted for 5.2%, the volume of gross output - 10.5%. Thus, the U.D. during the NEP period was limited, and private sector in prom. was not developed. Already in the spring of 1922, under the pretext of “necessity,” the Bilimbaevsky plant was taken away from the tenants. Soon, other leased enterprises in heavy industry, as well as concessions, suffered the same fate. In connection with the collapse of the NEP in the late 20s, the private sector was also liquidated on Wed. and small industrial The public sector, introduced by force, became dominant in industry. U.

Lit.: Bakunin A.V. The Urals as a single industrial and economic region. Sverdlovsk, 1991; Feldman V.V. Restoration of the industry of the Urals (1921-1926). Sverdlovsk, 1989; Dmitriev N.I. New approach to the problem of denationalization by the White Guard authorities of industry and transport in the East of Russia // Historical experience in the development of the eastern regions of Russia. Book 3. Vladivostok, 1993.

Bakunin A.V., Dmitriev N.I.

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Loss of territory- Poland, Finland, the Baltic countries (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia), Western Belarus and Ukraine, Bessarabia and the Kara region of Armenia were left outside Soviet Russia and its allied socialist state formations.

Population losses as a result of wars, emigration, epidemics and a drop in the birth rate, the population numbered approximately 25 million people. Experts calculated that no more than 135 million people lived in Soviet territories at that time.

They were thoroughly destroyed and fell into disrepair industrial areas: Donbass, Ural and Baku oil production complex. There was a catastrophic shortage of raw materials and fuel for poorly functioning plants and factories.

The volume of industrial production decreased by approximately 5 times (metal smelting fell to the level of the beginning of the 18th century).

Agricultural production decreased by approximately 40%.

Inflation exceeded all reasonable limits.

There was and was growing a shortage of consumer goods.

The intellectual potential of society has degraded. Many scientists, technical specialists and cultural figures emigrated, some were subjected to repression, even physical destruction.

The peasants, outraged by the surplus appropriation system and the excesses of the food detachments, not only sabotaged the delivery of grain, but also raised armed insurrections. The farmers of the Tambov region, Don, Kuban, Ukraine, Volga region and Siberia rebelled. The rebels, often led by ideological Socialist Revolutionaries, put forward economic (abolition of food appropriation) and political demands:

Changes in the agricultural policy of the Soviet authorities.
Cancel the one-party dictate of the RCP(b).
Elect and convene the Constituent Assembly.

Units and even formations of the Red Army were sent to suppress the uprisings, but the wave of protests did not subside. Anti-Bolshevik sentiments also matured in the Red Army, which resulted in the large-scale Kronstadt uprising on March 1, 1921. In the RCP(b) itself and the Supreme Economic Council, already in 1920, the voices of individual leaders (Trotsky, Rykov) were heard calling for the abandonment of food appropriation. The issue of changing the socio-economic course of Soviet power has become ripe.

Factors that influenced the adoption of the new economic policy

The introduction of the NEP in the Soviet state was not someone’s whim; on the contrary, the NEP was due to a number of factors:

Political, economic, social and even ideological. The concept of the New Economic Policy was general outline formulated by V.I. Lenin at the X Congress of the RCP(b). The leader called at this stage to change approaches to governing the country.

The concept that the driving force of the socialist revolution is the proletariat is unshakable. But the working peasantry is its ally and the Soviet government must learn to “get along” with it.

The country must have a built-in system with a unified ideology, suppressing any opposition to the existing government.

Only in such a situation could the NEP provide a solution to the economic problems that wars and revolutions posed to the young Soviet state.

General characteristics of the NEP

NEP in Soviet country a controversial phenomenon, since it directly contradicted Marxist theory. When the policy of “war communism” failed, the “new economic policy” played the role of an unplanned detour on the path to building socialism. V.I. Lenin constantly emphasized the thesis: “NEP is a temporary phenomenon.” Based on this, the NEP can be broadly characterized by its main parameters:

	Characteristics
	Overcome the political and socio-economic crisis in the young Soviet state; finding new ways to build the economic foundation of a socialist society; improving the standard of living in Soviet society and creating an environment of stability in domestic politics.
	The combination of the command-administrative system and the market method in the Soviet economy. the commanding heights remained in the hands of representatives of the proletarian party.
	Agriculture; industry (private small enterprises, lease of state enterprises, state capitalist enterprises, concessions); financial sector.
Specifics	The surplus appropriation system is replaced by a tax in kind (March 21, 1921); linking the city and the countryside through the restoration of trade and commodity-money relations; admission of private capital to industry; permission to rent land and hire farm laborers; liquidation of the card distribution system; competition between private, cooperative and public trade; introduction of self-government and self-sufficiency of enterprises; abolition of labor conscription, liquidation of labor armies, distribution of labor through stock exchanges; financial reform, transition to wages and the abolition of free services.

The Soviet state allowed private capitalist relations in trade, small and even in some medium-sized enterprises. At the same time, large industry, transport and financial system regulated by the state. In relation to private capital, the NEP allowed the use of a formula of three elements: admission, containment and displacement. What and at what point to use Soviet and party bodies based on the emerging political expediency.

Chronological framework of the NEP

The New Economic Policy fell within the time frame from 1921 to 1931.

	Action	Course of events
	Starting the process	Gradual winding down of the system of war communism and the introduction of elements of the NEP.
1923, 1925, 1927	Crises of the New Economic Policy	The emergence and intensification of the causes and signs of the trend toward the collapse of the NEP.
	Activation of the program termination process.	An actual departure from the NEP, a sharp increase in critical attitude towards the “kulaks” and “NEPmen”.
	Complete dismantling of the NEP.	A legal ban on private property has been formalized by law.

In general, the NEP quickly restored and made the economic system of the Soviet Union relatively viable.

Pros and cons of NEP

One of the most important negative aspects of the new economic policy, according to many analysts, was that during this period the industry (heavy industry) did not develop. This circumstance could have had catastrophic consequences during this period of history for a country such as the USSR. But besides this, not everything in the NEP was assessed with a “plus” sign; there were also significant disadvantages.

	"Minuses"
Restoration and development of commodity-money relations.	Mass unemployment (more than 2 million people).
Development of small businesses in the areas of industry and services.	High prices for industrial goods. Inflation.
Some increase in the standard of living of the industrial proletariat.	Low qualifications of most workers.
The predominance of “middle peasants” in social structure sat down.	Exacerbation of the housing problem.
Conditions have been created for the industrialization of the country.	Increase in the number of co-workers (officials). Bureaucratization of the system.

The reasons for many economic troubles that led to crises were the low competence of personnel and the inconsistency of the policies of the party and government structures.

Inevitable crises

From the very beginning, the NEP showed the unstable nature characteristic of capitalist relations. the economic growth which resulted in three crises:

The sales crisis of 1923, as a consequence of the discrepancy between low prices for agricultural products and high prices for industrial consumer goods (“scissors” prices).

The grain procurement crisis of 1925, expressed in the preservation of mandatory government purchases at fixed prices while the volume of grain exports decreased.

The acute grain procurement crisis of 1927–1928, overcome with the help of administrative and legal measures. Closing of the New Economic Policy project.

Reasons for abandoning the NEP

The curtailment of the NEP in the Soviet Union had a number of justifications:

The New Economic Policy did not have a clear vision of the development prospects of the USSR.
Unsustainability of economic growth.
Socio-economic disadvantages (wealth stratification, unemployment, specific crime, theft and drug addiction).
Isolation of the Soviet economy from the world economy.
Dissatisfaction with the NEP of a significant part of the proletariat.
Disbelief in the success of the NEP by a significant part of the communists.
The CPSU(b) risked losing its monopoly on power.
The predominance of administrative methods of managing the national economy and non-economic coercion.
Exacerbation of the danger of military aggression against the USSR.

Results of the New Economic Policy

Political	in 1921, the Tenth Congress adopted a resolution “on party unity,” thereby putting an end to factionalism and dissent in the ruling party; a trial was organized against prominent Socialist Revolutionaries and the AKP itself was liquidated; The Menshevik party was discredited and destroyed as a political force.
Economic	increasing the volume of agricultural production; achieving the pre-war level of livestock production; the level of production of consumer goods did not satisfy demand; rising prices; slow growth in the welfare of the country's population.
Social	a fivefold increase in the number of the proletariat; the emergence of a layer of Soviet capitalists (“NEPmen” and “Sovburs”); the working class has noticeably improved its standard of living; the “housing problem” has worsened; The apparatus of bureaucratic-democratic management increased.

New economic policy and wasn't there until the end understood and accepted as a given by the authorities and people of the country. To some extent, the NEP measures justified themselves, but there were still more negative aspects of the process. The main result was fast recovery economic system to the level of readiness for the next stage of building socialism - large-scale industrialization.

NEP is an abbreviation made up of the first letters of the phrase “New Economic Policy”. The NEP was introduced in Soviet Russia on March 14, 1921 by the decision of the Tenth Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (Bolsheviks) to replace the policy.

“- Be silent. And listen! - Izya said that he had just gone into the printing house of the Odessa Provincial Committee and saw there... (Izya choked with excitement)...a typesetting of the speech Lenin recently delivered in Moscow on the new economic policy. A vague rumor about this speech had been wandering around Odessa for the third day. But no one really knew anything. “We must print this speech,” said Izya... The operation of stealing the set was done quickly and silently. Together and quietly we carried out the heavy lead type of speech, put it on a cab and went to our printing house. The set was placed in the car. The machine rattled and rustled quietly as it printed the historical speech. We read it greedily by the light of a kitchen kerosene lamp, worrying and realizing that history was standing next to us in this dark printing house and we, too, were to some extent participating in it... And the next morning, April 16, 1921, the old Odessa newspaper sellers were skeptics, misanthropes and sclerotics - they began to hastily shuffle along the streets with pieces of wood and shout in hoarse voices: - The newspaper "Morak"! Speech by Comrade Lenin! Read everything! Only in Morak, you won’t read it anywhere else! Newspaper "Morak"! The issue of “Sailor” with a speech sold out in a few minutes.” (K. Paustovsky “Time of great expectations”)

Reasons for the NEP

From 1914 to 1921, the volume of gross output of Russian industry decreased by 7 times
Reserves of raw materials and supplies were exhausted by 1920
Agricultural marketability fell 2.5 times
In 1920, traffic volume railways amounted to a fifth in relation to 1914.
Cultivated areas, grain yields, and production of livestock products have decreased.
Commodity-money relations were destroyed
A “black market” formed and speculation flourished
The standard of living of workers has fallen sharply
As a result of the closure of many enterprises, the process of declassification of the proletariat began
IN political sphere the undivided dictatorship of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) was established
Worker strikes and uprisings of peasants and sailors began

The essence of the NEP

Revival of commodity-money relations
Providing freedom of operation to small producers
Replacement of the surplus appropriation system with a tax in kind, the tax amount decreased by almost half compared to the food appropriation system
The creation of trusts in industry - associations of enterprises that themselves decided what to produce and where to sell the products.
Creation of syndicates - associations of trusts for wholesale sales of products, lending and regulation trading operations On the market.
Reduction of bureaucracy
Introduction of self-financing
Creation of the State Bank, savings banks
Restoration of the system of direct and indirect taxes.
Carrying out monetary reform

Results of the NEP

The success of the NEP was the restoration of the destroyed Russian economy and overcoming famine

Legally, the new economic policy was curtailed on October 11, 1931 by a party resolution on a complete ban on private trade in the USSR. But in fact it ended in 1928 with the adoption of the first five-year plan and the announcement of a course for accelerated industrialization and collectivization of the USSR