They began to move from manufactories to machine production. Industrial Revolution changed the economic appearance of Europe, it became developed and inaccessible to serf Russia. And yet, progress is a process that sooner or later affects any state. The comprehensive industrial revolution in Russia began only at the end of the 19th century.

Industrial thaw in Russia: causes, prerequisites, lag factors

The beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia remains a controversial issue today. There are several opinions regarding the beginning of this historical process.

Historian-economist Stanislav Gustavovich Strumilin was the first to name the chronology of the modernization of Russian industry. He outlined it within the framework of 1830-1860.

Modern historiography considers the time period from 1850 to 1880 more reasonable.

Prerequisites for the coup:

1. Scientific and technological progress - the invention of steam engines, machine tools and machines that minimize manual labor.
2. The gradual introduction of capitalist relations - the use of civilian workers, the accumulation of capital.

Only by the middle of the 19th century did Russia begin to move towards capitalism. But there were many factors that slowed down the industrial revolution. The main and most significant was serfdom. The cheapness of serf labor determined the reluctance of large industrialists to introduce new technologies. Freelance labor was more a necessity than an aspiration. The domestic and foreign markets were amorphous and low-dynamic. The state stimulated the development of production. The agricultural sector was underdeveloped, which, in turn, affected the dynamics of the domestic national market.

Despite the fact that the industrial revolution in Russia began much later than in European countries and the USA, it led to an innovative type economic development and the formation of new social strata of the population.

Characteristics of the Industrial Revolution

Despite significant government pressure, the industrial revolution started, although it was sluggish.

The abolition of serfdom in 1861 led to the formation of new social classes - the proletariat and the industrial bourgeoisie. Free-hired workers, formerly serfs, flocked to the cities to get work in large factories and factories, albeit for meager wages. The huge resources of the state and cheap labor gave such enterprises multimillion-dollar profits, which contributed in the best possible way to the development of production and its relative industrialization.

The government is beginning to take measures to revitalize economic sectors such as industry and trade. Customs duties on raw materials have been increased repeatedly. Import and export of innovative equipment finished products was encouraged.

Since 1861, the following industries have become leaders in industry:

• coal mining;
• metallurgy;
• shipbuilding;
• construction of railways;
• light industry: textile and cotton industries.

Banking and credit sector after a long decline, it entered a positive direction. More than 40 banks and more than 200 insurance and credit enterprises were created. In addition, the contributions of state banks to the economy have increased several times. In such favorable conditions, an intensive influx of foreign capital begins.

Reforming Russia

Historians associate the beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia not only with the elimination of serfdom, but also with the widespread reform of the state.

• Financial reform of 1860 - creation of a state bank.
• Tax reform, 1863 - introduction of a unified system of excise taxes and patents.
• The zemstvo reform of 1864 - the activation of handicrafts through the organization of artels.
• The “Regulation on duties on the right of trade and crafts” led to the equalization of classes in the ability to engage in private entrepreneurship.

Stages of the Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution in Russia began in the middle of the 19th century and took place in three stages:

1861-1881 the emergence of capitalism, reform of the state, the rise of light and heavy industries.

The 80-90s of the 19th century were the peak of the industrial “spring”.

1890s of the 19th century - 1905 - crisis of capitalism, social and economic life, completion of the industrial revolution in Russia.

Results of the industrial "boom"

The industrial revolution in Russia began in the middle of the 19th century and brought the serf state with a backward economy to a new stage of development. Russia entered into a world-historical process that led to a leap not only in the economy, industry, social sphere, but also significantly changed the worldview of the state’s population. The formation of capitalist relations, to one degree or another, led to revolution, the overthrow of the monarchy as one of the remnants of the old system.

Nevertheless, the industrial “spring” in the serf state had its own specifics. The peculiarities of the industrial revolution in Russia were its “lightning-fast” pace. In a monarchical state, the transition to a machine type of production was not accompanied by a transition to an industrial or agro-industrial type of economy. Despite the leap in industry, it did not lead to rapid development of mechanical engineering.

Industrial Revolution (industrial revolution, Great Industrial Revolution) is the transition from manual labor to machine labor, from manufactories To factory. The transition from a predominantly agricultural economy to industrial production, resulting in a transformation agricultural society V industrial. The industrial revolution did not occur in different countries at the same time, but in general it can be considered that the period when these changes took place began in the second half of 18th century and continued for 19th century. A characteristic feature of the industrial revolution was the rapid growth of productive forces on the basis of a large machine industry and the establishment capitalism as the dominant world economic system.

The term “industrial revolution” was introduced into scientific circulation by an outstanding French economist Jerome Blanqui.

The Industrial Revolution is associated not just with the beginning of the mass use of machines, but also with a change in the entire structure of society. It was accompanied by a sharp increase in labor productivity, rapid urbanization, the beginning of a quick economic growth(before this, economic growth, as a rule, was noticeable only on a scale of centuries), with a historically rapid increase in the living standards of the population. The Industrial Revolution allowed the transition from an agrarian society (where the majority of the population lived) in just 3-5 generations. natural economy) to industrial.

Innovation

S. Crompton's spinning machine, 1779

The success of the industrial revolution in Great Britain was based on several innovation that appeared towards the end of the 18th century:

Textile industry - Spinning threads from cotton on spinning machines R. Arkwright(1769), J. Hargreaves and S. Crompton. Subsequently, similar technologies were used to spin yarn from wool And flax.

Steam engine- Invented J. Whattom and patented by him in 1775. Steam engine originally used in mines for pumping out water. But already in the 1780s it found application in some other mechanisms, replacing hydropower where it was not available.

Metallurgy- IN ferrous metallurgy coke came to replace charcoal, just as it was previously used in production lead And copper. Now coke was used not only in the manufacture pig iron V blast furnaces, but also to obtain malleable iron, including when puddling, invented Henry Cortom in 1783-1784.

History of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the last third of the 16th century and became comprehensive in the first half of the 19th century, later covering other countries in Europe and America.

During 17th century England begins to overtake the world leader Holland by the rate of growth of capitalist manufactures, and later in world trade and the colonial economy. Towards the middle 18th century England becomes a leading capitalist country. In terms of economic development, it has surpassed other European countries, having all the necessary prerequisites for entering a new stage of socio-economic development - large-scale machine production.

The Industrial Revolution was accompanied and closely related to it by the production revolution in agriculture, leading to a radical increase in land and labor productivity in the agricultural sector. Without the second, the first is simply impossible in principle, since it is the production revolution in agriculture that makes it possible to move significant masses of the population from the agricultural sector to the industrial sector.

Steam engine

First Steam engine Thomas Savery

In world history, the beginning of the industrial revolution is associated with the invention of effective steam engine V Great Britain in the second half 17th century. Although such an invention in itself would hardly have yielded anything (the necessary technical solutions were known before), but at that time English society was prepared to use innovations on a large scale. This was due to the fact that England had by that time moved from a static traditional society to a society with developed market relations and an active entrepreneurial class. In addition, England had sufficient financial resources (since it was a world trade leader and owned colonies), brought up in the traditions Protestant work ethic population and a liberal political system in which the state did not suppress economic activity.

The first attempt to use a steam engine in industry is considered to be a water pump. Thomas Savery, patented in 1698. But it was not successful due to frequent boiler explosions and limited power. The car was more advanced Thomas Newcomen, developed by 1712 Apparently, Newcomen used previously obtained experimental data Denis Papin, who studied the pressure of water vapor on a piston in a cylinder and initially heated and cooled the steam to return the piston to its original state manually.

Steam engine diagram Newcomen

Newcomen pumps have found application in England and other European countries for pumping water from deep flooded mines, in which it would be impossible to carry out work without them. By 1733, 110 of them had been purchased, of which 14 were for export. These were large and expensive machines, very inefficient by modern standards, but they paid for themselves in places where coal mining was relatively cheap. With some improvements, 1,454 of them were produced by 1800, and they remained in use until the beginning of the 20th century.

The most famous of the early steam engines development J. Watt was proposed in 1778. Watt significantly improved the mechanism, making its operation more stable. At the same time, the capacity increased approximately fivefold, which resulted in a 75% saving in the cost of coal. Even more important consequences were the fact that, based on Watt’s machine, it became possible to convert the translational motion of the piston into a rotational one, that is, the engine could now turn the wheel of a mill or factory machine. By 1800, the company of Watt and his partner Bolton had produced 496 such mechanisms, of which only 164 were used as pumps. Another 308 found use in mills and factories, and 24 served blast furnaces.

In 1810, there were 5 thousand steam engines in England, and in the next 15 years their number tripled.

Steam engine J. Watt

Appearance metal cutting machines, such as turning, made it possible to simplify the process of manufacturing metal parts of steam engines and in the future create more and more advanced ones for a variety of purposes. By the beginning of the 19th century. English engineer Richard Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans combined a boiler and an engine in one device, which made it possible to further use it for propulsion steam locomotives And steamships.

Textile industry

Model of a spinning machine from the 18th century. from the museum Wuppertal, Germany

Weaving mill in Reddish, UK

At the beginning of the 18th century. The British textile industry was still based on the processing of local wool by individual artisans. This system was called the “cottage industry” because the work was done at home, in small cottages where artisans lived with their families. The production of threads requiring finer processing flax And cotton It was not widely used in medieval England, so cotton textiles were imported from India.

Invention of the volatile in 1733 shuttle increased demand for yarn. In 1738, a machine was created that spun thread without the participation of human hands, and in 1741, a factory was opened near Birmingham, in which the spinning machine was driven by donkey. The factory owners, Paul and Wyatt, soon opened a new factory near Northampton, already equipped with five spinning machines with fifty shuttles each, which worked until 1764. In 1771 in Cromford, Derbyshire, the spinning mill began operating Arkwright, who encouraged invention, and his machines were improved, they were now powered by water wheel. In addition, now, in addition to wool, the new machines can also process plant fiber imported from America. By 1780, there were 20 in England, and 10 years later - 150 spinning factories, and many of these enterprises employed 700-800 people.

Then the water wheel began to be replaced by a steam engine. Between 1775 and 1800 factories Watt and Bolton in Soho produced 84 steam engines for cotton factories and 9 machines for woolen factories. By the middle of the 19th century, hand weaving had almost completely disappeared in Great Britain. In the textile industry, the so-called self factor, which ensured the mechanization of spinning processes.

Mechanical engineering

Lathe 1911

In medieval Europe, the manufacture of mechanisms was carried out by watchmakers and manufacturers of navigational and scientific instruments. Parts of clock mechanisms were even used in the manufacture of the first spinning machines. Many parts were made of wood carpenters, since the metal was expensive and difficult to process.

With the advent of an ever-increasing demand for metal parts of spinning machines, steam engines, as well as seeders and other mechanisms introduced into use in British agriculture from the beginning of the 18th century. , were invented lathes, and in the first half of the 19th century. milling and other machines for metalworking.

Among other crafts that required high-precision metal processing was the making of locks. One of the most famous mechanics who became famous in the manufacture of locks was Joseph Bramah. His student Henry Maudsley later worked for the Royal Navy and built machines for the production of pulleys and blocks. This was one of the first examples continuous production with standardization details.

Metallurgy and transport

The increase in the number of machines caused an increased need for metal and this required development metallurgy. The main achievement of this era in metallurgy was the replacement charcoal, used by medieval blacksmiths, on coal coke. It was introduced into use in the 17th century. Clement Clerc and his blacksmiths and casters.

Since 1709, in the town of Coalbrookdale, Abraham Darby, the founder of a whole dynasty of metallurgists and blacksmiths, used coke to produce pig iron from ore in blast furnace. At first, only kitchen utensils were made from it, which differed from the work of competitors only in that its walls were thinner and its weight was less. In the 1750s, Darby's son built several more domains, and by this time his products were also cheaper than those made with charcoal. In 1778, Darby's grandson, Abraham Darby III, used his castings to build Shropshire famous Iron Bridge, the first bridge in Europe consisting entirely of metal structures.

Iron Bridge, Shropshire, Great Britain

To further improve the quality of cast iron in 1784 Henry Court developed a process puddling. Growth in production and improvement in the quality of English metal by the end of the 18th century. allowed Great Britain to completely abandon the import of Swedish and Russian iron. The construction of canals began to allow the transportation of coal and metals.

From 1830 to 1847, metal production in England increased more than 3 times. Application hot blast during ore smelting, which began in 1828, fuel consumption was reduced threefold and allowed the use of lower grades of coal in production. From 1826 to 1846, the export of iron and pig iron from Great Britain increased 7.5 times.

Of great importance was the appearance railways. First locomotive was built in 1804 Richard Trevithick. In subsequent years, many engineers tried to create steam locomotives, but the most successful of them was Georg Stephenson, which in 1812 -1829 gg. proposed several successful designs of steam locomotives. His locomotive was used on the world's first public railway from Darlington to Stockton, opened in 1825. After 1830, rapid construction of railways began in Great Britain.

Chemicals

The Industrial Revolution made possible the industrial production of some of the most marketable chemicals, which marked the beginning of the development of the chemical industry. Sulfuric acid was known back in the Middle Ages, but it was obtained from oxides formed during the combustion of mineral sulfur, in glass vessels. In 1746, John Rebuque replaced them with larger lead ones, which significantly increased the productivity of the process.

Another important task was production alkaline compounds. Industrial production method sodium carbonate was developed in 1791 by a French chemist Nicola Leblanc. He mixed sulfuric acid with table salt and the resulting sodium sulfate heated with mixture limestone And coal. The mixture of reaction products was treated with water, sodium carbonate was obtained from the solution, and insoluble substances (limestone, coal and calcium sulfide) were discarded. Hydrogen chloride At first it also polluted the atmosphere of industrial premises, but later they learned to use it to produce hydrochloric acid. Leblanc's method was simple, cheap and produced a much more affordable product than the previously used method of obtaining soda from plant ash .

The Thames Tunnel, Europe's first tunnel under a water barrier, opened in 1843. For its construction they used cement.

Sodium carbonate has been used in a variety of manufacturing processes, including soap, glass, paper, and the textile industry. In addition to the production of soda, sulfuric acid has also been used to remove rust from metal products and as a bleach for fabrics. Only by the beginning of the 19th century. Charles Tennant And Claude Louis Berthollet developed a more effective bleach based on bleach. Tennant's new bleach factory remained the world's largest chemical plant for a long time.

In 1824, British mason Joseph Aspdin patented the chemical production process Portland cement. It consisted in sintering clay With limestone. Next, the mixture was ground into powder, mixed with water, sand and gravel, resulting in concrete. A few years later the engineer Marc Isambard Brunel used concrete to build the world's first watertight tunnel under the River Thames , and in the middle of the 19th century. it was used to build a modern city sewer system.

Gas lamps

Main article:Artificial light sources

Another achievement of the industrial revolution was street lighting. Its appearance in British cities was made possible thanks to the Scottish engineer William Murdoch. He invented the process of obtaining lighting gas by pyrolysis coal, as well as methods of its accumulation, transportation and use in gas lanterns. The first gas lamps were installed in London in 1812-20. Soon, most of the coal mined in Great Britain was used for lighting, as it not only increased comfort and safety on city streets, but also helped to lengthen the working day in factories and factories that had previously depended on relatively expensive candles and oil lamps for lighting.

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

There is an opinion that the export of capital from overseas British colonies was one of the sources of capital accumulation in the metropolis, which contributed to the industrial revolution in Great Britain and the emergence of this country as a leader in world industrial development . At the same time, a similar situation in other countries (for example, Spain, Portugal) did not lead to accelerated economic development. In addition, industry developed successfully in a number of countries that did not have colonies, for example, in Sweden, Prussia, USA.

As he believes Nobel laureate in economics John Hicks, the main factors of the industrial revolution in England were the following :

the formation of institutions that protect private property and contractual obligations, in particular an independent and effective judicial system;

high level of trade development;

the formation of a market for production factors, primarily a land market (that is, land trade became free and was freed from feudal restrictions);

widespread use of hired labor and the impossibility of using forced labor on a large scale;

development financial markets And low level loan interest;

development of science.

However, he does not overestimate the importance of technical inventions: “The Industrial Revolution would have happened without Crompton And Arkwright and would have been, especially in the later stages, the same as what actually happened.” .

A slightly different view of the causes of the Industrial Revolution was developed in the works of economic historians: Immanuel Wallerstein, Christopher Hill, Charles Wilson, J. Bergier and others - who analyzed the progress of industrialization of Western Europe and other countries in the 18th-19th centuries. based on the specific facts at their disposal. In their opinion, the system played a key role in accelerating the industrial growth of England in the 18th century. protectionism, introduced in the 1690s and reinforced by additional protectionist measures by the mid-18th century. It was she who ensured the rapid development of English industry, despite competition from the stronger at that time Dutch industry, and also ensured the development of industry Prussia, Austria And Sweden, where protectionist systems were also introduced .

In their opinion, factors related to money and the availability of capital played a significantly smaller or completely insignificant role in this process. Research by historians has shown that the vast majority of industrial enterprises in the period 1700-1850. founded by representatives of the middle class (peasants, traders, artisans), who did not resort to any external sources of financing, but developed at the expense of their own funds or money taken from relatives/acquaintances (see also article Initial accumulation of capital).

Among other factors identified by economic historians, the following may also have contributed to the Industrial Revolution:

Fight with monopolies and ensuring real freedom of enterprise (in England, these measures were carried out especially actively in the period from 1688 to 1724 and after 1746. );

The conclusion of an unspoken social contract between business and society, guaranteeing that they will adhere to certain rules of conduct, respecting the rights of both business and society .

Industrial Revolution in Russia

In the second quarter of the 19th century, Russia began a period of preparation for the introduction of machine production in the leading sectors of industry and transport, which was the final stage in creating the preconditions for the industrial revolution in Russia. Industrial revolution in Russia at the end of the first half of the 19th century century was of an extremely acute and contradictory nature, which was due to the diversity socio-economic structures a huge country in terms of territorial scale. The development of the capitalist structure in Russia was accompanied by the process of decomposition of feudal relations and the inhibitory influence of the class of feudal landowners dominant in Russia at that time. The industrial revolution in Russia began in the 1830-1850s, when technically advanced textile and sugar industries for that time were created, practically from scratch, and the technical re-equipment of metallurgy began. But industrialization took place most intensively in the periods of 1891-1900, in the 1920-1930s and 1950-1960s.

Social consequences

Urbanization and change social structure

The booming industry and service sector provided many new jobs. At the same time, the emergence of cheap industrial goods led to the ruin of small producers and bankrupt artisans became hired workers. But the main source of replenishment of the army of hired workers were impoverished peasants who moved to the cities. Between 1880 and 1914 alone, 60 million Europeans moved from villages to cities. Rapid urban population growth and internal migration in the 19th century became an almost universal phenomenon in Europe. For example, population Paris from 1800 to 1850 the population grew by more than 92% Manchester from 1790 to 1900 increased 10 times. In a number of countries, the urban population had become predominant by the beginning of the 20th century (in Belgium, according to the 1910 census, it was 54%, in Great Britain (1911) - 51.5%). In Germany in 1907 it was 43.7%, in France in 1911 - 36.5% of the total population.

Rapid urbanization and the increase in the number of wage workers have greatly aggravated social problems. While the centers of factory production were relatively small, a city dweller could, in addition to earning money at the factory, cultivate a vegetable garden, and in case of loss of work, be hired to work on a farm. But as cities grew, such opportunities became fewer and fewer. Peasants who migrated to the cities had difficulty adapting to the unusual conditions of urban life. As I noticed F. Braudel, “to live in the city, to lose the traditional support of a vegetable garden, milk, eggs, poultry, to work in huge premises, to endure the unpleasant supervision of masters, to obey, to no longer be free in one’s movements, to accept firmly established working hours - all this will become difficult in the near future test."

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the living conditions of the majority of hired workers did not meet basic sanitary and hygienic requirements. In most cases, their homes were overcrowded. “Renting beds to guests” was also common, practiced by families who rented apartments. IN London There were advertisements for the rental of part of a room, and the man who worked during the day and the girl who worked as a servant in the hotel at night had to share the same bed. Contemporaries in the mid-19th century wrote that in Liverpool“from 35 to 40 thousand of the population live below the soil level - in cellars that have no drainage at all...”.

Before invention gas lighting The length of the working day at enterprises depended on natural light, but with the advent of gas burners, factories were able to work at night. In France, many paper mills in the 1840s established a working day of 13.5-15 hours, of which half an hour was allocated for rest three times per shift. In English factories in the 1820-1840s, the working day, minus three breaks for meals (1 hour for lunch and 20-30 minutes for breakfast and dinner), lasted 12-13 hours. Working on Sundays became common.

Women's labor began to be used en masse in industry, and for the first time in history, many women began to work outside the home. At the same time, in textile factories, men worked as supervisors and skilled mechanics, while women operated spinning and weaving machines and received lower wages than men. The introduction of machines made it possible to use simply trained, low-skilled workers and therefore cheap child labor also became widespread. In 1839, 46% of UK factory workers were under 18 years of age. It was officially recognized: “There are cases that children begin to work at the age of 4, sometimes at the age of 5, 6, 7 and 8 in the mines.”

Social protests, an awakened sense of “social shame” for the misfortunes of workers, and the desire to reduce political instability forced politicians to support the development social programs for the poor, state regulation of the relationship between labor and capital.

In general, the standard of living of the population increased as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Improving the quality of food, sanitary conditions, quality and accessibility of medical care led to significant growth life expectancy and fall mortality. Happened population explosion. For 13 centuries (from the 6th to the 19th centuries) of European history, the population of the continent never exceeded 180 million people. In the 19th century alone (from 1801 to 1914), the number of Europeans increased to 460 million people.

According to researchers N. Rosenberg and L. Birdzell, “the industrial revolution marked the beginning of a dramatic period of improvement in the material situation of Western European and American societies, which affected everyone,” and “the romantic idea of ​​​​the prosperous life of workers in pre-industrial Europe can be rejected as pure fantasy "

Education

A philosopher gives a lecture using a model of a planetary system. J. Wright, OK. 1766 Scientific knowledge was spread in informal philosophical circles.

Knowledge about innovation was spread in different ways. Workers who qualified with one employer could then move on to another. This method of advanced training was very common; in some countries, such as France and Sweden, it was even government policy to send workers for internships abroad. Trainees, as now, usually kept records of their work, which have survived to this day as monuments of the era.

Another way of disseminating knowledge was philosophical societies and circles, whose members, in particular, studied “ natural philosophy", as they called it then natural Sciences and its practical applications . Some societies published reports on their activities, on the basis of which later arose scientific journals and other periodicals, including encyclopedias.

Medieval universities during the industrial revolution also changed, and their educational standards came closer to modern ones. In addition, new higher educational institutions appeared, in particular, polytechnic and specialized institutes and academies

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION(industrial revolution) - revolutionary changes in tools and in the organization of production, which led to the transition from pre-industrial to industrial society. The classic and earliest example of the industrial revolution is England in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Modern historical and economic science identifies three major qualitative leaps in the history of mankind - three revolutions in the productive forces of society and in the structures of society itself. The Neolithic Revolution created a productive economy; the industrial revolution led to the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society; ongoing scientific and technological revolution leads to a transition from an industrial society to a service society. All these processes occurred asynchronously in different countries and regions, but were global in nature.

The term "industrial revolution" (or "industrial revolution") emphasizes the rapid and explosive nature of the changes that occurred at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. first in England, and then in other countries of European civilization. This concept was first used in the 1830s by the French economist Adolphe Blanqui. From the 1840s it began to be widely used by Marxists: in the first volume Capital Karl Marx gave a detailed analysis of the revolutionary changes in the means of production, which became the foundation of the capitalist system. Among non-Marxist historians, the concept of “industrial revolution” gained universal recognition at the end of the 19th century. influenced Lectures on the Industrial Revolution famous English historian Arnold Toynbee.

Along with the narrow interpretation of the industrial revolution as an event associated only with the genesis of capitalism, broader interpretations of it are also common among social scientists, when the industrial revolution refers to any deep qualitative changes in the industrial sphere. Proponents of this approach identify not one industrial revolution, but three (Table 1) or even more. However, this broader interpretation is not generally accepted.

Table 1. PERIODS OF TECHNICAL REVOLUTIONS and their main characteristics
Elements technical progress	Periods of greatest concentration of qualitative changes
	Late 18th – early 19th centuries. (first industrial revolution)	Last third of the 19th – early 20th centuries. (second industrial revolution)	Mid 20th century (third industrial revolution - scientific and technological revolution)
Tools and means of labor	The emergence of machine production	Coverage of basic work processes by machine production; mass production of machines	Formation of machine systems, comprehensive mechanization, production automation
Motive power and energy	Steam engine	Electricity generation, electric motor, internal combustion engine	Electrification of production, nuclear reactor, jet engine
Objects of labor	Mass production of iron, cast iron	Mass production of steel	High-quality metallurgy, mass production of aluminum and plastics
Transport	Railway transport on steam locomotive traction, steamship	Diesel ships, road and air transport	Development of unified transport systems, containerization, jet transport and rocket technology
Means of communication corrections	Postal service	Telecommunications (telegraph, telephone)	Radio communications and electronics
Agriculture	Emergence scientific systems agriculture, plant and animal breeding	Agricultural mechanization, mineral fertilizers	Integrated mechanization and chemicalization, microbiology, the beginning of the regulation of biological processes
Construction and building materials	The dominance of manual labor, brick and wood	The first construction mechanisms; cement and reinforced concrete	Industrial construction methods, use of new building materials and light structures
Forms of organization of science	Individual scientific activity	The emergence of specialized scientific work	Transformation of science into a knowledge industry, into a branch of the national economy
Education	Spread of literacy and emergence of vocational training	Mass general and special education	Significant (several times) increase in the average level of education, rapid development higher education
By: Zaparii V.V., Nefedov S.A. History of science and technology. Ekaterinburg, 2003

Discussions continue among social scientists today about what exactly should be considered the main content of the industrial revolution of the 18th–19th centuries. The most important changes of the era of the industrial revolution are:

appearance is fundamental new means of labor– machines (i.e. mechanization of production);

formation new type economic growth – transition from slow and unstable to high self-sustaining growth;

completion of formation new social structure– transformation of entrepreneurs and employees into the main social classes.

Industrial revolution as mechanization of production. During the industrial revolution, a new element of the productive forces of society emerged - a machine, which consists of three main parts: an engine machine, a transmission mechanism and a working machine. The most important of them are work machine, which processes labor material, replacing the “skillful hands” of the worker, and engine, giving the working machine energy far superior to human strength. It is depending on how the formation of these mechanical devices occurred that three stages of the industrial revolution are distinguished:

Stage 1 – the emergence of working machines (initially in textile production, and then in other industries);

Stage 2 - the invention of the steam engine as an engine for working machines;

Stage 3 – creation of working machines for the production of other working machines.

Invention of working machines. In the modern era, clothing became the first industrial consumer product. Therefore, the industrial revolution began in weaving production. The first center of the industrial revolution was England, a country that back in the 16th and 17th centuries. was the main center of sheep breeding in Europe, whose wool was used to make fabrics used not only in England itself, but also exported abroad.

The beginning of the Industrial Revolution is considered to be the invention of a mechanical spinning wheel in 1764–1765 by the English weaver James Hargreaves, which he named after his daughter “Jenny.” This spinning wheel sharply (about 20 times) increased the productivity of the spinner. Despite the resistance of workshop weavers who were afraid of competition, within a few years “Jenny” began to be used by spinners in England almost everywhere.

The efficiency of the spinning jenny was limited by the fact that it used the muscular power of the weaver. The next important step was taken in 1769 by the barber Richard Arkwright, who patented a continuous spinning machine designed for water drive. Finally, in 1775, weaver Samuel Crompton designed a mule spinning machine that produced high-quality fabric. If the “Jenny” produced a thin but weak thread, and the Arkwright water machine produced a strong but coarse thread, then the Crompton mule machine produced a yarn that was both strong and thin at the same time. After these inventions, the textile industry of England put itself beyond competition, supplying all developed countries of the world with fabrics.

Machine production initially arose on a craft basis - machines were produced by hand and driven by the power of the worker. However, then, during the Industrial Revolution, engines for cars appeared and the production of cars by machines began.

Invention of the engine for cars. The first engines used to power working machines used the power of a water wheel known in antiquity. However, such engines could only be used near rivers. The rapid development of machine production required the invention of universal engines that could be used anywhere.

If working machines came from the weaving industry, then machine engines came from the mining industry.

When operating mining mines, one of the main problems has always been pumping water. Back in 1711, Thomas Newcomen invented a steam pump with a cylinder and a piston. Since Newcomen's cars had uneven running, they often broke down.

In 1763, he began work on improving Newcomen's machine. James Watt, laboratory assistant at the University of Glasgow. Having understood the shortcomings of the traditional model, Watt developed the project in principle new car. In 1769, simultaneously with the invention of Arkwright's spinning machine, Watt took out a patent for his steam engine, but its development before mass practical implementation required many more efforts. It was only in 1775 that the production of steam engines was established at a factory in Birmingham, and only ten years later this production began to generate tangible profits. Finally, in 1784, Watt patented the double-acting steam engine, which became a symbol of the “age of steam.”

The invention of a new engine not only accelerated the development of old industries (for example, textiles), but also caused the emergence of fundamentally new ones. In particular, there was a revolution in the organization of transport. Historians and economists call the creation and spread of mechanical vehicles transport revolution.

Already in 1802, the American Robert Fulton built a prototype boat with a steam engine in Paris. Returning to America, Fulton built the world's first steamship, the Claremont. It is characteristic that the engine for this steamship was manufactured at the Watt plant. In 1807, the Claremont made its first voyage on the Hudson. At first, there was not a single daredevil who wanted to become a passenger on the new ship. However, just four years later Fulton founded the world's first steamship company, and ten years later in America and England the number of steamships was already measured in the hundreds. In the 1830s, the first regular transatlantic steamship line began operating.

Simultaneously with the invention of steamships, attempts were made to create a steam carriage. In 1815 George Stephenson, a self-taught English mechanic, built his first steam locomotive. In 1830 he completed the construction of the first large railway between Manchester (an industrial center) and Liverpool (a seaport from where English goods were transported around the world). The benefits of this road were so great that Stephenson was immediately offered to supervise the construction of a road across England from Manchester to London. Throughout the 19th century. length of railways in developed countries ah grew explosively, peaking in the 1860s–1880s

Invention of machines for making machines. At the initial stages, the spread of machines was limited by the fact that they had to be produced by hand, so each of them depended heavily on the ingenuity of the craftsman; machines of the same type were noticeably different from each other. The revolution in production was completed when the mechanization of the production of the machines themselves was realized.

The most important discovery of mechanical engineering during the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the lathe, which could be used to cut screws and carry out other operations. The English mechanic Henry Maudsley played a major role in this discovery. In 1798–1800 he invented a lathe with a slide, which made it possible to cut screws and nuts very accurately. Realizing the need to universalize technical parameters, Maudsley also became the founder of technical standardization. Only now has it become possible to mass produce bolts and nuts that fit together.

The mechanization of machine production made it possible to establish the mass production of “killing machines” - firearms, rifles and steel cannons.

It has long been known that guns with rifling in the bore shoot further and more accurately. However, it was difficult to load such a gun from the muzzle, like a smoothbore one, and to create a breech-loading gun, it is necessary to manufacture the gun's bolt with high precision. When high-precision lathes appeared, this problem was solved. In 1841, the Dreze needle gun was adopted by the Prussian army, and later rifled weapons entered other European armies. The Crimean War convincingly showed the advantages of Allied rifled weapons over Russian smoothbore guns.

Later, steel cannons appeared. In the 1850s, English inventor and entrepreneur Henry Bessemer invented the Bessemer converter, and in the 1860s, French engineer Emile Martin created the open-hearth furnace. After this, industrial production of steel and steel cannons began.

The mechanization of weapons production reinforced the high economic efficiency of Western European countries with the equally high efficiency of their armies. Thanks to this, the colonial subjugation of the entire world to advanced Europe became only a matter of time.

"Patent revolution" as a prerequisite for the industrial revolution. Historians note that cars themselves were not at all something completely new for Western Europe. Even in ancient times, many mechanical devices were invented, including the use of steam power. In the Middle Ages, there are also many known attempts to use machines in factories. These facts show that, from the point of view of the possibilities of purely technical inventions, the industrial revolution could have occurred much earlier than modern times.

The explanation for the “belated” mass adoption of technical inventions lies in the fact that it required the implementation of some social innovations first. To introduce machines, in particular, it was first necessary to eliminate the medieval guild system, which prohibited competition, and create a system of legal protection for the rights of the inventor. In the Middle Ages, technical inventions remained unique examples: the introduction of technology encountered resistance from guild artisans who were afraid of losing their jobs, and inventors, afraid of losing income from the use of their discoveries, hid them in every possible way and often took their secrets with them to the grave.

Feudal regulation created not incentives for technical innovations, but counter-incentives. There are many examples of repression against inventors of new technical innovations. So, in 1579 in Danzig the mechanic who created the ribbon loom was executed. When the English weaver John Kay invented the “flying shuttle” in 1733, he was persecuted by his fellow workers - his house was destroyed and he was forced to flee to France. The last echo of the medieval fear of machines was the Luddite movement in Great Britain at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, when rebellious workers smashed machines that were “taking bread away from people.”

The most important prerequisite for the invention of machines was “ patent revolution"in the mid-18th century, when special laws were passed in England protecting (for a number of years) the exclusive rights of the inventor to use his discovery. Invention began to bring income rather than persecution. As a result, many inventors (Arkwright, Watt, Fulton, Stephenson) were able to become major entrepreneurs who earned large profits from the exploitation of their discoveries. Without laws to protect intellectual property rights, invention would not be widespread.

The Industrial Revolution as a transition to self-sustaining growth. The era of the industrial revolution qualitatively changed the pace of economic growth. In pre-industrial societies, economic growth was unstable and low: periods of economic growth alternated with periods of recession, causing the average growth rate to fluctuate around zero. A new look at the era of the industrial revolution, the concept of transition to self-sustaining growth, was formulated in 1956 American economist Walt Rostow.

W. Rostow identified five stages of growth:

1. traditional society (the traditional society);

2. the period of creating the preconditions for take-off;

3. take-off;

4. the drive to maturity;

5. the era of high mass consumption.

The criterion for identifying stages in W. Rostow’s concept was mainly technical and economic characteristics: level of technology development, sectoral structure economy, the share of production accumulation in national income, consumption structure, etc.

For first stage, In a traditional society, it is typical that over 75% of the working population is engaged in food production. National income is used mainly unproductively, for consumption rather than accumulation. This society is structured hierarchically, with political power vested in the landowners or the central government. The rate of economic growth is low and unstable.

Second stage is transitional to takeoff. During this period, important changes were carried out in three non-industrial sectors of the economy - agriculture, transport and foreign trade.

Third stage, “takeoff”, covers, according to W. Rostow, a relatively short period of time - only 20–30 years. At this time, the rate of capital investment increases sharply, output per capita increases noticeably, and rapid implementation begins new technology into industry and agriculture. Development initially covers a small group of industries (“leading link”) and only later spreads to the entire economy as a whole. For growth to become automatic and self-sustaining, several conditions must be met:

a sharp increase in the share of productive investment in national income (from 5% to at least 10%);

rapid development of one or more industrial sectors;

political victory of supporters of economic modernization over defenders of traditional society.

The main idea of ​​the concept of W.U. Rostow is shown in the graph (Fig. 1), where time is plotted along the abscissa axis, indicating the stages identified by Rostow, and average per capita income is plotted along the ordinate axis.

A traditional society is characterized by fluctuations at the same level: average per capita income either increases slightly or falls under the influence of a deterioration in the ratio of subsistence/population. In the second stage, transitional to takeoff, the situation improves somewhat: the average per capita income is growing, however, we cannot yet talk about irreversible changes. Only the take-off stage transfers the average per capita income to a qualitatively new level of living and, most importantly, creates the preconditions for irreversible growth.

The interpretation of the industrial revolution proposed by W. Rostow suggests seeing the main thing not in new machines, but in new high growth rates. Indeed, the industrial revolution led to a sharp acceleration in the rate of annual growth of key economic indicators (Table 3). However, with this approach, deep social and institutional changes appear to be in the shadows, and the ratio of investments and growth rates of the gross national product comes to the fore.

Critics of the concept of self-sustaining growth noted the rather abstract nature of the quantitative criteria proposed by W. Rostow for identifying stages. In his theory, the thesis about doubling the share of industrial investment in national income carries a great logical load. Meanwhile, this statement does not fully correspond to the historical experience of developed capitalist countries. As the American economist Simon Kuznets rightly noted, the share of domestic accumulation in national income before the take-off stage in many countries was noticeably higher than 5% (for example, in the USA in the 1840–1850s it was 15–20%) and it doubled during take-off altogether was not observed. W. Rostow’s scheme, notes S. Kuznets, “could rather correspond to the ‘communist rise’,” since in the process of socialist industrialization of the late 1920s and early 1930s, the rate of production accumulation actually doubled.

Thus, the interpretation of the industrial revolution proposed by W. Rostow as a sharp acceleration and qualitative change in growth rates is accepted today, but in a less harsh form. Historians agree that only after the industrial revolution did sustainable high economic growth begin, associated not with external, but with internal incentives. However, the change in the rate and quality of economic growth does not occur “in leaps” at all, but over a long period of time. A spasmodic “take-off” is typical only for countries of catching-up development (for Russia, for the newly industrialized countries of the third world), which, when implementing the industrial revolution, use many of the achievements of advanced countries in “ready form”.

The Industrial Revolution as a social revolution. Economists of the left orientation, followers of the ideas of K. Marx, see the main content of the industrial revolution not in the invention of machines and not in economic growth, but in a qualitative change in the social characteristics of the labor process and the social structure of society.

Tools of labor acquire a form of existence that requires the replacement of human power with the forces of nature, and empirical routine techniques with the conscious application of scientific knowledge. It was after the industrial revolution that the collective (cooperative) nature of labor became a technical necessity.

In pre-industrial societies, production depended primarily on individual skill and physical strength. Therefore, the labor process remained largely individualized: a peasant with his family independently cultivated his plot, a craftsman with a few apprentices worked alone in the workshop. When entrepreneurs organized the joint manual labor of many workers in a manufactory (this form of production was quite widespread, for example, in medieval Italy), their labor productivity grew quite slightly, and therefore such manufactories could not become the main form of industrial production. In addition, a manufacturing wage worker always wanted, having accumulated money, to become an independent artisan, since his labor skills allowed him to work alone. Finally, since manual labor required high qualifications and considerable physical strength, only men could be active workers in pre-capitalist societies, while women were left with only secondary activities that did not require any special skill or physical strength. This position of an employee is called formal subordination of labor to capital: the employee retains the opportunity to break with hired labor.

The massive introduction of machines introduced fundamental changes in the organization of labor, and thereby in the social structure of society.

Factory production, based on the cooperation of machines, formed a fundamentally new type of worker. What was required of him was the ability to no longer make any product with his own hands from start to finish, but to perform monotonous operations on the machine, constantly working side by side with other hired workers. As a result, even having saved up money, such a hired worker could not become an independent producer, since his skills made him a “cog” of a single labor collective managed by an entrepreneur. This - real subordination of labor to capital when the employee can no longer return to the self-employed. It is now that entrepreneurs (capitalists) and wage workers (proletarians) become the main social classes.

Machine production, which simplifies labor operations, made it possible to involve not only the adult male workforce in the labor process, but also women and children. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. there is a decrease in the average salary of workers due to the involvement of female and child labor. A negative side effect of this was the rapid increase in child mortality (for example, in England by 100–260%). At the same time, society realized the need to introduce primary education for children up to 14 years of age.

At first, the machine acted as a means of lengthening the working day. Entrepreneurs were encouraged to do this by the material and moral wear and tear of their machines. However, lengthening the working day conflicts with the intensification of labor - an increase in the employee’s energy expenditure per unit of time. The condition for intensifying labor is to reduce the working day, otherwise the worker could not withstand the “factory hard labor.”

So, radical left scientists consider the main social consequence of the industrial revolution transition from formal to real subordination of labor to capital. The lifelong specialty of operating a partial tool, they believe, turns into a lifelong specialty of serving a partial machine. Therefore, from their point of view, the machine does not free the worker from labor, but labor from all content. There is a separation of the intellectual forces of the production process from physical labor and their transformation into the power of capital over labor. The technical subordination of the worker creates a barracks-like labor discipline at the dawn of capitalism.

Features of the industrial revolution in different countries. The Industrial Revolution occurred unevenly in different countries. After the industrial revolution in England, the industrial revolution begins in 1830–1860 in France, in the 1850–1890s in the USA and Germany, in the 1870s in the Scandinavian countries, in the 1880s in Japan (Fig. 1).

The industrial revolution in countries with catching-up development, as a rule, has a number of fundamental differences from how it proceeded in advanced countries.

Firstly, in lagging countries the industrial revolution was caused not only and not so much by the needs of internal development, but by external pressure - the need to give economic and military resistance to more advanced countries. As a consequence, the industrial revolution in lagging countries does not occur spontaneously, but under the tutelage of the state, which purposefully “grows” those technical and social innovations that it considers most necessary.

Secondly, although the process of the industrial revolution itself proceeds more rapidly during catch-up development, it, as a rule, remains partly incomplete. A striking example of this is Soviet industrialization: although the USSR managed to make industrial production the basis of economic development in the 1930s–1950s, even today the mechanisms of self-sustaining growth and automatic renewal of production are weak. Having arisen largely as a result of government support, industrial production in lagging countries does not learn to grow without government assistance.

The industrial revolution is a general historical phenomenon that characterizes a certain stage in the development of capitalism. Initially, the industrial revolution was understood as a series of technical inventions between 1760 and 1830 that changed the conditions of production in many industries. In 1884, the English scientist A. Toynbee introduced the term “industrial revolution” into scientific circulation, denoting a qualitative leap in the development of productive forces. It begins in industrial production and spreads to all spheres of labor and production (including agricultural), causing the growth of cities and influencing all aspects of life and everyday life of society. The end result of this process was the emergence of modern industrial civilization (Table 8).

Industrial Revolution(industrial technical revolution) - a system of economic and socio-political changes based on the transition from manual labor to machine labor.

The industrial revolution, thus, meant a fundamental change in the organizational and economic level of the structure of the economy of developed countries, since it was associated with the transition from manufacture to factory.

Factory- a form of organization of large-scale production, based on the use of a system of machines and complex labor cooperation in conditions of unit-by-unit specialization of partial workers.

Table 8

Prerequisites, sources and consequences of the industrial revolution

End of table. 8

Sources	· use of J. Watt's steam engine · invention and introduction of the Stephenson steam locomotive and the Fulton steamship at the beginning of the 19th century.	· exploitation of colonies and semi-colonies · indemnities and reparations from states defeated in the war · loans, credits, direct investments of foreign capital
Consequences	· increasing technical equipment and productivity of social labor industrialization	urbanization · concentration of the industrial proletariat and the growth of its political consciousness · improving the quality and standard of living of society

In general, the industrial revolution affected 1.5 Kondratiev cycles: 1790-1840/50. – the period of formation of factory production itself (the cycle of Kondratieff’s industrial revolution); 1840/50-1890 – “bourgeois cycle” by Kondratiev. These are the first cycles of an endogenous type, associated with basic technological innovations, the successful implementation of which was accompanied by changes in other parameters of the economic system. The removal of technological restrictions on manual labor, and then the elimination of the productivity limits of water and steam engines, deepened the process of rationalization of production. The Industrial Revolution became the starting point of industrialization.

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in all sectors of the national economy and, above all, in industry.

In the western economic theory It is customary to distinguish three main models of industrialization: traditional, command and market. The traditional model corresponds to the structure of relatively undeveloped societies, which are based on rural structures and which are characterized by isolation, stability of customs and subsistence production. Its prerequisite is not only the inevitable shortage of resources, but also “zero growth,” that is, in conditions where resources are limited, there is only one possibility of generating income - at the expense of other classes, industries or areas of the economy. As a result, community or state authorities take on the functions of redistribution. In contrast, the command model can be characterized by economic growth, although it is forced to reckon with a lack of resources. It is aimed at solving the priority political tasks that the state sets for itself. Market model assumes “super-zero growth” as its prerequisite. It is determined by the minimal redistributive functions of the state and market regulation price systems to provide incentives for production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each model ultimately reflects differences in the perception of the world due to differences in human capabilities, ethical attitudes, and social or political priorities. In the history of economics, various combinations of these factors determined the path of industrialization of different states.

Necessary prerequisites for successful industrialization:

· presence of an entrepreneur and entrepreneurial culture;

· the existence of legal and political institutions that stimulate entrepreneurship in a free market and private property.

6.2. Features of industrialization of the Western world

England is the first country to begin and complete the industrial revolution, becoming the “workshop of the world.” This was facilitated by favorable conditions:

· the long-term development of commodity-money relations led to the formation of industrial demand for finished products and goods;

· significant concentration of capital in private hands (by 1750, income from state rent reached only 3%);

· the completion of the agrarian revolution, which contributed to the formation of the market work force and concentration of land;

· changes in agriculture (three-field farming was replaced by crop rotation (cereals, turnips and clover), which led to an increase in productivity;

· bourgeois revolution of the mid-17th century, which stimulated the development of capitalism;

· geopolitical factor, characterized by the absence of foreign invasions;

· resource base: the small number of forests has led to attempts to replace wood with other types of fuel.

Table 9

Stages of the Industrial Revolution in England

Chronological framework
1735 – mid. 1760	“State of Development” (John Nef): creating prerequisites for the industrial revolution, development of basic industries (coal, metallurgical industries); concentration of manufactures; increase in volume foreign trade
ser. 1760 – 1785	The beginning of the industrial revolution in light industry (cotton production). Favorable conditions: lack of workshops; mechanism of “demonstrative consumption” availability of raw materials – cotton from colonies
1785 – mid. XIX centuries	Introduction of Watt's steam engine, discovery of a new method of metal processing - puddling, development of the transport system, creation of domestic mechanical engineering

The English model of industrialization, which began with the industrial revolution in light industry, then spread to basic industries and ending with the emergence of machine production itself, was called the model “towards the mouth” .

The development of the industrial revolution and industrialization led to significant changes in the structure of the English economy. In the middle of the nineteenth century. imports of agricultural products put an end to the country's agricultural development. Export-oriented heavy industry is receiving particular development. The demographic structure is changing: the share of the urban population by the end of the 19th century. is 75%. However, after the industrial revolution, the English economy began to develop cyclically, increasingly experiencing crises, the first of which were noted back in 1815-1816 and 1819. (Table 9).

In France, the industrial revolution developed at a slower pace. The first machines appeared in industry at the end of the 18th century, but the industrial revolution began only in 1815-1830, and ended in the 50-60s. XIX century Features of the industrial revolution in France:

· unfavorable factors;

· incompleteness of the agricultural revolution, small capacity of the domestic market: weak financial incentives, wars and revolutions;

· large number population, developed foreign trade;

· favorable factors.

Table 10

Stages of the Industrial Revolution in France

Thus, the industrial revolution in France is characterized by the initial rise of manufacturing industries using labor-intensive methods, and the subsequent development of basic industries with their capital-intensive technologies. This model was called “towards the source” in contrast to the English one. An important feature of French industrialization was its duality: the existence, along with new large enterprises capable of ensuring mass production of standard products, of a decentralized system of small and medium-sized enterprises specializing in the production of piece goods. In addition, more than half of the national income was created in agriculture, that is, France became an agrarian-industrial country. At the same time, the conclusion about the ineffectiveness of the French model of industrialization is not confirmed by the latest research. A system based on labor-consuming manufacturing and integration downstream was well suited to the country's capabilities. This allowed France to become one of the original leaders of the industrialization process, which, as F. Caron wrote, “was neither completely victorious nor completely defeated” (Table 10).

The emergence of large-scale machine production in Germany occurred only in the second half of the 19th century. The main reason for this situation was the preservation of political fragmentation and the feudal regime in agriculture and crafts. The prerequisites for the industrialization process were created by the French Revolution of 1789-1794, the Napoleonic Wars, which led to the partial abolition of feudal duties in the occupied territories, and the agrarian reforms of the early 19th century, as a result of which a special Prussian path of development of capitalism in agriculture arose.

The Prussian path of development of capitalism in agriculture is the process of dispossessing the peasantry that received personal freedom and creating large Junker farms.

Of particular importance for the industrial revolution was the beginning of the economic unification of the German principalities within the framework of the Customs Union, which strengthened their internal ties and international positions.

Table 11

Stages of the Industrial Revolution in Germany

Chronological
late XVIII-mid. XIX centuries	Initial preparatory stage. Industrial revolution in the textile, cotton and silk industries. Development of coal mining, heavy industry and railway transport
50-70s XIX century	Development of the factory industry. The emergence of the chemical and electrical industries
70-80s XIX century	Completion of the industrial revolution. Close intertwining of factory production and the formation of monopolies

Economic backwardness of Germany in the first half of the 19th century. led to a much stronger role for the state.

Methods command economy in Germany:

· providing protective tariffs;

· provision of government contracts for heavy industry;

· encouraging innovative banks to increase investment;

· formation of a dual price system – low export prices and high domestic prices.

Germany was also able to take advantage of the late industrial revolution. Using technological equipment from more developed countries, German industry had the opportunity to more quickly create domestic mechanical engineering (especially in the military field). The change in the structure of production allowed Germany to achieve leading positions in many industrial indicators, including the concentration of production, labor and capital (Table 11).

The development of the industrial revolution in the United States took place in conditions different from European countries:

1) a huge, sparsely populated territory (25 people per 1 sq. km, for comparison: in France - 100 people);

2) rapid population growth (1790 - 4 million; 1840 - 17 million; 1850 - 50 million), which contributed to the rapid creation of new markets;

3) the organizational and economic level of the economic structure is represented by handicraft production, mainly metalworking;

4) cheap labor associated with the preservation of slavery;

5) unequal trade with Great Britain;

6) clearly expressed agricultural orientation of the economy.

The formation of the state (1776) played a special role in creating favorable preconditions for the industrial revolution. The War of Independence eliminated both the tendency to impose feudal orders on the part of the metropolis and the real elements of feudalism in the field of agrarian relations. The final formation of the so-called “American way” of the development of capitalism in agriculture was secured by the Homestead Act in 1862.

The American way of developing capitalism in agriculture– development of the economy of farmers who received land from the state and are free from paying absolute land rent.

the revolution destroyed numerous obstacles to the development of industry and trade, introduced at one time by England (“iron”, “corn” and “monetary” laws), and control over natural resources passed from the English king to a private entrepreneur. the creation of the state contributed to the formation of a unified transport and monetary systems, formation of the domestic market and expansion of foreign economic relations. At the same time, the consequences of the War of Independence of 1775-1783. affected mainly the northern and central states. The change in the agricultural economy of the southern United States began after the Civil War of 1861-1865. and abolition of slavery abolitionism.

Table 12

Stages of development of the industrial revolution in the USA

Chronological
20-40s XIX century	Preparatory stage. Technical revolution in the cotton industry. Creating prerequisites for production automation
40-50s XIX century	The beginning of a technical revolution in agriculture, which contributed to the transition from extensive to intensive methods of farming. Development of coal mining, metallurgy and transport
60-70s XIX century	Creation of domestic mechanical engineering. Industrial development in the southern states. Emergence of the petroleum and chemical industries

The exceptionally rapid growth of industrial production in the United States was accompanied by processes of its concentration. The country's share in world production also increased at an unprecedented pace. Thus, in 1860, the USA provided 17% of world industrial output, in 1870 – 23%, and in 1880 – already 28%, overtaking all countries of the world and practically catching up with England (Table 12).

Japan back in the 60s. XIX century remained a feudal country. The development of the industrial revolution here begins after the Meiji Ishin Revolution - the unfinished bourgeois revolution of 1867-1868. Considering the country’s poor preparedness for industrialization, the government took the path of imposing “state capitalism.” The state, through budgetary allocations using foreign experience created a national industry. In the 80s The government decided to reorient its policy towards the full development of private capitalist industry with the implementation of measures for denationalization. To achieve this, state-owned enterprises began to be sold at preferential terms or be leased to privileged representatives of the bourgeoisie and people from the upper nobility. Among them were the so-called demonstration enterprises - firms Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Furukawa, Yasuda, Asodo, Kawasaki, etc. The accelerated industrial development of the country was also facilitated by priority government allocations, 80% of which was land tax, as well as protectionist policies that protected the domestic market from influx of cheap foreign goods. At the same time, the government subsidized primarily the development of enterprises that worked for the army and navy, as well as for communications and transport. Among the main branches of Japanese industry, light industry, primarily textiles, took precedence. Small enterprises predominated in industry. Distinctive feature The Japanese economy also had the existence of a special zaibatsu system, a kind of holding company operating under the control of several influential families. The latter were shareholders of numerous companies that provided work to a large number of contractors. Such relationships made it possible to maintain the hierarchy inherited from the feudal system. At the beginning of the 20th century. protectionist government policy caused a structural restructuring of the trading and family companies Mitsui and Mitsubishi, which gradually evolved to the concern model.

In 1905-1907 The industrial revolution is ending in Japan, which is reflected in the structure of the economy.

Features of the economic structure in Japan at the beginning of the 20th century:

· metallurgy, textiles, shipbuilding, large enterprises with machinery;

· handicraft and home industries, craft workshops and manufactories.

6.3. Development of the financial system

The era of the industrial revolution was accompanied by a reorganization of the financial system, due to the rapid development of credit institutions. The need for capital, experienced by both the state and private entrepreneurs, stimulated the development of the process of centralization of temporarily free funds and demand for them in banks. Their most important functions at this time were mediation in settlements and provision of loans, the implementation of which led to the creation of specific credit funds circulation: banknotes and checks. Complication banking functions in the 19th century affected the structure of the banking system. If from the 17th century. until the middle of the nineteenth century. in every developed country there were several issuing institutions that received from government authorities privileged right issue of money, then in the 50s. The monopoly right of issue is vested in one single bank. This was determined by the need to concentrate gold reserves in a single place, which at that time covered the issue of banknotes and were used in international payments. Thus, the Bank of England (established in 1694) received a monopoly right to issue in 1844 on the basis of Peel’s Law. The French bank (formed in January 1800) receives for a period of 15 years the privilege to issue issues only in Paris, then after the Restoration this right extends to branches. In the USA, Germany, Italy, and Japan, similar transformations occur much later.

Initially, the functions of banks of issue coincided with the functions of depository banks: bank notes were certificates of deposited metallic money. However, in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. banks of issue were able to issue paper money in three cases:

· banknotes were issued in exchange for metal received from private individuals;

· when rediscounting commercial bills previously taken into account by depository banks;

· during operations open market(purchase and sale of securities on the money market).

The most important result of the era of the industrial revolution was the emergence in many developed countries of a national fund of funds - the budget. In their revenue part, taxes occupied the main place (from 80 to 90%).

Reasons for reorganization tax system in the XVIII-XIX centuries:

· expansion of the sphere of commodity-money circulation;

· economic stimulation policy;

· growth in government spending.

main part existing taxes– indirect, included in prices consumer goods. For example, at the end of the 18th century. in England, the only country with an extensive but uniform taxation system, direct tax accounted for 1/4 of state revenues. The main taxes were excise and local taxes for the maintenance of the poor. In France, the main taxes included an excise tax on luxury goods and drinks, as well as a direct tax on peasants (taglia), traditional duties, including soldiers' quarters, a salt tax and a tax on silver processing. In the German principalities there were excise taxes levied on imported and exported goods at rates ranging from 5 to 25%. The army occupied the main place (up to 2/3) in state budget expenditures. The needs of the state apparatus were also significant, for example, in the middle of the 19th century. For these purposes, 1.05% was allocated in the budget of England, 2.01% of France, and 3.9% of Prussia.

6.4. Leading countries and their economic role in the world

Thanks to the creation of the first factory industry in the history of mankind, England in the last quarter of the 18th century. took an exceptional place in the world economy and international politics. Although its economic growth rate has been slow, amounting to about 0.5% per year, this rate is higher than that of other European countries. In 1820-1870, the growth rate of English industry already reached 1.5% per year. England mined 2/3 of all coal and produced more than half of metal and linen. By 1870, it had 31.9% of the world's industrial potential (trade turnover was greater than that of France, Germany, Italy taken together, 3 times higher than that of the United States). England acts not only as a producer, but also as a major consumer of raw materials and food products. This stimulates the development of trade and merchant fleet, the tonnage of which is 10 million (For comparison, in France and Germany this figure reached 1 million, in Germany – 2 million). Due to the peculiarities of its development, England also acts as a global creditor, playing the role of conductor of the international gold standard orchestra.

Industrial and commercial hegemony was promoted by the economic policy of the state. Until the 40s. XIX century it occurs within the framework of protectionism, accompanied by high customs duties on foreign goods. With the strengthening of its dominant position, in need of markets for its products, England switched to a policy of free trade, which manifested itself, among other things, in the repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) and the Navigation Act (1860). A clear manifestation of new priorities foreign economic activity enterprises began to develop relations with France. Thus, according to the treaty of 1860, England abolished duties on French silks and food, and France abolished duties on English cars, metal products, coal, and wool. Such agreements were not equal, since the cheapness of English goods led to the displacement of national French goods from the domestic market.

Until the mid-60s of the nineteenth century. England has a trade surplus, then the trade balance becomes passive, but the overall account balance remains active ( passive balance compensated by “invisible exports”: transport services and capital flows). However, the lack of competition in the domestic and colonial markets, as well as the stereotypes of behavior of the leading country, led to stagnation in development and, ultimately, the loss of England’s position in the world market, where since the 80s. The championship is contested by the USA, Germany and Japan.

6.5. Economic development of Russia during the era of the industrial revolution

The unique development of the industrial revolution in Russia was determined by a combination of factors:

1) poverty and illiteracy of the population;

2) the need for large initial investments to organize production;

3) preservation of serfdom;

4) the special role of the state (industrialization occurs within the framework of the mobilization path);

5) British competition both in its weak market and in a potential foreign one.

The state sought to develop industry, guided primarily by military goals, so the growth of capital investment in heavy industry occurred at the expense of the more widespread light industry and agriculture, which used labor-intensive methods. Russia turned out to be the only country among the major industrial countries, which undertook industrialization without having a strong agricultural sector.

Stages of development of the industrial revolution in Russia

From 1804 to 1864, labor productivity in domestic industry increased almost fivefold, despite the presence of serf labor. However, overcoming the country's technological backwardness rested on social backwardness, which affected the peculiarities of the process under consideration.

Features of industrialization in Russia:

· the predominance of civilian labor in the form of otkhodnichestvo;

· disinterest in using new technologies;

· cheapness of serf labor;

· narrowness of the domestic and foreign markets;

· absence required capital in the country;

· continuation of the process initial capital;

· strong role of the state in stimulating the development of production.

Changes in the economy influenced the determination of the course of foreign economic policy. From the beginning of the nineteenth century. The government has repeatedly taken measures to boost industrial and commercial activity, while pursuing the goals of replenishing the treasury and protecting Russian industry. State policy takes on a pronounced prohibitive and protectionist character. This is confirmed by the adoption of a number of Customs Tariffs in 1810, 1816, 1819, 1850 and 1857, according to which customs duties on imported and exported raw materials were increased and the import of equipment and export of finished products was encouraged. But the protectionist nature of customs legislation did not meet the needs of a developing state, since, unlike developed countries, in Russia, income from foreign trade went primarily to military needs and to unproductive consumption of the ruling circles. Only in the 60s. a policy reorientation begins, characterized by the expansion of the domestic market by stimulating investment in industry and railway construction, as well as providing assistance to agriculture. Economic support for agriculture was provided mainly through fiscal policy(reduction of taxes on production due to equal distribution of the burden across all classes). Thus, the development of the national domestic market was hampered by the underdevelopment of agriculture. In addition, all European countries solved the problem of agrarian overpopulation as a problem of land shortage, while in Russia the presence of free land maintained the basis for an extensive type of development. By the middle of the 19th century. In Russia, a general structural crisis of the feudal-serf system has objectively matured. The main indicator of this was the Crimean War of 1853-1856. At the end of the 50s, Russia found itself in a state of virtually insolvent debtor. The public debt reached 1 billion rubles, and the budget deficit increased sixfold - from 52 to 307 million rubles. She was in a difficult state and credit system. Back in 1839, Minister of Finance E. Kankrin held monetary reform. It was found that 350 rubles. paper money equals 100 rubles. silver, and this meant the devaluation of banknotes. They were completely withdrawn from circulation and replaced by credit notes, freely exchangeable for silver. But during the Crimean War the government more than once resorted to money issue, the exchange rate of the credit ruble was constantly declining, so free exchange was abolished.

In such conditions, the initiator of transformations was still the state, which was reflected in the spread of exogenous economic cycle 50 - mid 90's At the same time, the transformations carried out during this period played a special role, because For the first time in the country, conditions arose for the development of a mass free owner and the creation of prerequisites for the transition from a mobilization type of development to an innovative one, that is, a process similar to that taking place at that time in developed countries.

The innovative type of economic growth represents a stable, repeating trend in the development of society based on a continuous and targeted process of searching, preparing and implementing innovations that improve operating efficiency social production, increase the degree of fulfillment of the needs of society and its members.

However, the transition to an innovative type of economic growth took place under the conditions of a traditional “revolution from above.”

The most important link in the reform of the 60-70s. was the abolition of serfdom. The content of this reform, set out in the Regulations of February 19, 1861 ., boiled down to the following: serfs were declared personally free without any ransom, they received an allotment from the landowner, for which they continued to serve corvee or quitrent, that is, they became temporarily obliged. The peasants could buy not only the estate, but also, by mutual agreement with the landowner, field land, using a government loan for this. Upon completion of the redemption, the landowner's patrimonial supervision over the peasants ceased, their status as temporarily obligated ended, and the peasants transferred to the position of free owners. The relationship between the landowner and the peasants was mediated by the community, which, in particular, collectively paid for the redemption loan provided by the state for 49 years. Coming out of serfdom, the peasants remained in the community, received a certain amount of self-government and jointly bore duties to the state. In other words, the reform was based on the extension and conservation of semi-feudal relations. Redemption was a unique form of feudal rent. It was even formally calculated from the amount of the quitrent: for the allotment it was necessary to pay the amount that, when deposited in the bank, gives the landowner the quitrent payment in the form of interest. Therefore, in the central regions of Russia, where a tithe cost 25 rubles for a regular purchase, it cost the peasant 60 rubles when redeemed. Difference between market value constituted feudal (essentially) rent. Along with redemption payments, peasants paid taxes to local and central authorities. Numerous sections from the pre-reform allotment forced the rental of additional plots of land. The financial burden paralyzed the possibility of accumulation, and frequent communal land redistributions paralyzed enterprise, especially among wealthy peasants.

In the bourgeoisification of the agricultural sector, which became the main consequence of the peasant reform, similarities with the Prussian way of agricultural development are often noted. There were indeed similarities, but there were differences.

Signs		Germany
Similarities	Abolition of serfdom
	Cutback land plots peasants
	Transfer of land to peasants for ransom
	Creation of large land holdings
	Preservation rental relations	Elimination of semi-feudal relations of dependence
	Community preservation	Elimination of communal relations
	Maintaining the privileges of landowners	Elimination of landowners' privileges

Starting with innovations in a crucial sphere for agricultural Russia state life, reforms carried out according to a single plan have spread to many spheres of public life, taking on a comprehensive character. Of particular importance for the development of the domestic economy was the zemstvo reform of 1864, which contributed to the activation of the activities of the main producers of industrial goods for the population - artisanal peasants. Research conducted by the zemstvo showed that the most difficult problems to solve in the handicraft industry included their supply of raw materials, provision of credit and sales of products, weak technical training artisans. A solution was found first in workshops and sales points organized by handicraft museums, then in the transition to a system of artels satisfying the needs of short term loan in the network of provincial and zemstvo cash offices, as well as at the expense of the private fund named after. S. T. Morozova.

Financial reform also played a major role. Until 1861, the country's credit system was represented by state-owned noble banks, providing loans to landowners secured by estates, and private banking houses lending to industry. In 1860 it was created National Bank, which until the end of the century did not have the right to independently issue banknotes, but could only replace old banknotes with new ones, accept deposits and issue loans, purchase and sell gold, silver, foreign currency And valuable papers. This led to the fact that, figuratively speaking, banking system country served as a horse-drawn car. After the reform of 1861, state-owned banks merged with the State Bank. During this period, commercial banks began to actively operate. First joint stock commercial Bank(St. Petersburg) opened on November 1, 1864, then a number of commercial banking offices arose in the capital, in 1870 the Volzhsko-Kama bank was formed, and then the Azov-Don bank. In addition, reforms of a more private nature were carried out in the economy: the abolition of wine farming and their replacement with a unified system of excise taxes and patent fees (1863), attempts to restore the value of the ruble in cash(1862-1863) and others.

The fundamental difference between the reforms of the 60-70s. from all previous ones was the creation of legal guarantees for entrepreneurs by the state. They were enshrined in the “Regulations on duties for the right to trade and other trades” of January 8, 1863, which put an end to the inequality of classes in the rights to engage in private business activities. The restrictions, which lasted until 1917, were established for Jews, government employees, Orthodox priests, Protestant pastors, their wives and minor children. The military, both soldiers and officers, could engage commercial activities only through authorized persons. The situation left two merchant guilds, abolishing the category of “trading peasants.” A serious step forward was the introduction of an economic criterion for dividing industrial establishments according to technical equipment and the number of workers. Guild certificates of the second category were taken by the owners of industrial establishments that had machines with a steam or water engine or employed more than 16 workers, as well as various sellers operating within the city or county. Guild certificates of the first category were acquired by wholesale traders operating throughout Russia. In addition to these guilds, there was a category of “petty bargaining”, as well as “delivery”, “carrying”.

All of these transformations were not consistent, but they turned out to be very significant for the economy, because marked the beginning of the stage of market recovery and the disruption of discontinuities in the country's economic development model. The liberation from serfdom of almost 2/5 of the country's population gave a serious impetus to population growth, which from 1860 to 1897. grew by 52 million people, mainly due to natural increase. The collection of basic agricultural crops was constantly increasing. Their productivity increased by an average of 50%; for comparison, during this period in European countries it increased by 2-4 times. The changes taking place in agriculture contributed to a shift in the structure of the economy, characteristic of the stage of transition of a traditional agrarian society to an industrial type of development and associated with a gradual decrease in the share of the agricultural sector in the total national product. The abolition of serfdom led, on the one hand, to the transition of industry to civilian labor, and on the other, to the formation of a labor market. This was one of the reasons for the temporary decline, especially in industries that used serf labor. Industrial growth accelerated after 1875 and then after a pause in the late 1980s. XIX century At the same time, the fate of the progressive reforms of Alexander II turned out to be quite difficult. After his death on March 1, 1881, Alexander III, fearing an escalation of the revolutionary movement, carried out the so-called “inside-out reforms.”

additional literature

Abrams R.M. On the issue of studying the history of industrialization // Economic history: research, historiography, controversy. – M.: Nauka, 1992.

Amosov A. Economic and evolutionary aspect of national-state interests // Issues. economy. 1994. No. 2.

Semenev L.S. Customs policy of Russia in the 40-50s. XIX century and the industrial revolution // Issues. history of Russia in the 19th century

XX century – L.: Leningrad State University, 1983.

The industrial revolution is the transformation of manufacturing production, based on manual labor, into factory production. The process is based on the extensive use of machines. in Russia began in the 19th century, in the 30s-40s, and ended in the 80s of the same century.

The industrial transition began with those industries in which manual labor was most common. The first was the cotton industry. The machines began to be introduced into stationery, cloth and other production. Machine-building enterprises also began to be created in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod and other cities.

The industrial revolution in Russia at the first stage was characterized by the active development of transport, railway and steamship, first of all. In 1837 the first Railway. It connected Tsarskoe Selo and St. Petersburg. And in 1851, rails were laid between St. Petersburg and Moscow.

The industrial transition in the country began later than in European countries that were more economically developed. For example, in England, already in the sixties of the 18th century, the first factories began to be created.

The industrial revolution in Russia began in a feudal economy. This, of course, had a very negative impact on the pace and geography of the industrial transition. As a result, industrial enterprises are distributed quite unevenly throughout the country.

At its very beginning, the industrial revolution in Russia was also characterized by some slowdowns in the creation of large capital. Coming from serfdom, many entrepreneurs were not given legal rights. In this regard, they could not own factories, remaining dependent on the power of the landowners.

The industrial transition in Russia did not contribute to the development of new classes - the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie. This was due to the preservation of the economic feudal system. The workers of factories and factories were peasants-otkhodniks. In this regard, the composition of workers at enterprises was not constant, and the workers themselves had a rather low level of qualifications.

The second began at the turn of the seventies and eighties of the 19th century. At this point, more than half of all industrial goods were produced by enterprises that were equipped with equipment and which powered this equipment.

The industrial transition affected (except for the cotton, paper and sugar beet industries) the metalworking and mining, cloth and textile, engineering and wool industries. By this time, factory production had prevailed over handicraft and manufacturing.

The industrial revolution at the second stage had its own characteristics. The transition continued under new conditions: all these transformations were canceled and eliminated many obstacles to the formation of a capitalist system in the state.

In addition, new industrial sectors began to form: petrochemical, engineering, chemical and others.

The industrial transition led to the emergence of regions (Baku, Krivoy Rog, Donbass) free from the traditions of serfdom and rapidly developing in new socio-economic and technical conditions.

Undoubtedly, the industrial revolution had important social results. New classes began to form. After the reforms, the industrial bourgeoisie began to be replenished with people from officials, peasants, merchants, and nobles.

The working class was also actively formed. At the same time, the proletariat continued to be in a difficult situation. Working conditions were unsatisfactory, the working day was very long, lawlessness reigned, there was no labor legislation, health insurance. As a result, in the eighties and nineties the first workers' protests took place (for example, the Morozov strike in 1885).

What is the industrial revolution and what impact did it have on the development of Europe in the 19th century?

The Industrial Revolution is one of the most important phenomena in the history of mankind, which allowed a number of countries to enter a period of rapid development of productive forces and put an end to economic backwardness forever. In fact, the entire modern material civilization was its result. The Industrial Revolution marked the transition from the predominance of the agricultural economy, with its constant threat of crop failure and famine, to a new stage in economic development and a new material level.

Some scientists believe that the industrial revolution is a technical and economic phenomenon associated with the transition from manufacturing production, based on manual labor, to factory production, which is based on machines. But the majority still believes that the industrial revolution represents a set of economic, social and political changes that marked the transformation of machines into the main means of production. Indeed, changes in industry caused major changes in agriculture, the distribution of the population, and its composition. big cities, new classes and social groups. Serious changes followed in the political structure, and then in the spiritual life of society.

The criterion that helps determine the beginning of the industrial revolution in any country is considered to be the beginning of the formation of a factory system, which is associated with the emergence of a significant number of real factories. In England, a country that took this path earlier than others, factories began to appear everywhere in the 80s. XVIII century At the end of the century France joined it, and already in the 19th century. Other European countries followed suit.

Despite the peculiarities of the industrial revolution in each country, it is still possible to trace its certain logical sequence. First, machine production was mastered by the textile industry. Next, the mastered methods and organization are transferred to other industries and to new regions. The manufacture of machines, until then handicraft, is allocated to a special branch of production. At the final stage, the mass distribution of machines and factory production leads to the final victory over craft. Cars are made by machines. Countries embarking on the path industrial development later leaders, have the opportunity to quickly go through the initial stages of the coup, using the experience they have already accumulated.

The industrial revolution in England was completed by the early 60s. XIX century, in France and the USA - by the beginning of the 70s, by the end of the 80s - in Germany and Austria-Hungary, in the 90s. - in the Nordic countries. In general, industrial society in Europe had formed by the beginning of the 20th century.

The changes brought about by the industrial revolution are difficult to overestimate. The equipment and technology of production have changed fundamentally, new industries have emerged: oil, chemical, non-ferrous metals, automobile, machine tool, aviation, the widespread use of electricity has begun, and oil and gas as energy carriers. Created technical base made it possible to intensify scientific research and ensure the rapid implementation of scientific discoveries. The growth of heavy industry led to the displacement of relatively small enterprises. Centralization and concentration of production led to the emergence of leading enterprises in a number of industries and revealed a tendency towards agreements on production and sales issues between the largest firms. In the 20th century monopolies have become an integral feature of Western industrial society.

The Industrial Revolution prompted over 60 million Europeans to leave their villages in the last third of the 19th century. Cities and workers' settlements grew quickly. By the end of the century, the population of 13 cities in Europe had crossed the million mark. In leading countries, workers began to make up more than half of the total number of residents, and in England - 70%. The structure of the basic classes of society has also changed. The share of industrialists has increased. Among the workers, in terms of their number and influence, textile workers were replaced by metallurgists - miners, machine builders, and railway workers. The number of clerical, technical and sales employees increased.

The capabilities of the developed industry quickly affected the nature and structure of consumption. A mass market is being formed, aimed at ordinary people who receive goods of acceptable quality at an affordable price. The standard of living has improved.

Serious changes have occurred in spiritual life. Factories and mills have become firmly entrenched in people's consciousness. The new era was distinguished by a sense of the enormous possibilities of technology and science. Europeans were getting used to the dynamism of everyday life and constant change.

In the second half of the 19th century. discoveries in the field of natural sciences have changed ideas about the structure of matter, space, time, movement, the development of flora and fauna, the place of man in nature, and the origin of life on Earth. A paradigm shift has begun in the public consciousness. The idea of ​​evolution and development is becoming generally accepted. Time is perceived in its infinite extent. The concepts of dynamic and statistical laws are established.

Of course, not everyone had access to the latest scientific achievements. But changes in the education system, educational activities of scientists, and the growing prestige of science and education did their job and contributed to a change in mass consciousness.

At the same time, liberal ideas were established in European society, contributing to the democratization of political and social life. Suffrage extended to more and more people, and political parties and those in power could no longer ignore public opinion.

However, thanks to the industrial revolution, Europe took a major step forward along the path of progress and prosperity.

In Russia in the 20-40s. XIX century There were also technical changes in industry, but the peculiarity here was that it belonged to the circle of those countries in which the transition to a factory production system took place under the influence of the already achieved results of those states that had embarked on this path earlier. Therefore, the machines imported to Russia then found themselves in an economic, social and political situation that did not correspond to them, and therefore they could not produce the same production effect as in the places where they were manufactured. Non-capitalist or not entirely capitalist use of machinery has become widespread. The massive transition to machine production began in the second half of the 50s. and has become crucial for Russian economy in post-reform times.

What is the industrial revolution and what impact did it have on the development of Europe in the 19th century? - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “What is the industrial revolution and what impact did it have on the development of Europe in the 19th century?” 2017, 2018.

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