Where large factories and factories were built, with the onset of the industrial revolution, cities began to quickly arise and grow, in which the workers lived. Being heavily overpopulated and unsettled, these factory towns created serious problems in the life of the country. Houses in such cities, especially those built in the north of England, were of the cheapest construction and stood in rows, "back" to each other, closely closing the side walls. Most of the houses had no sewerage or running water. The streets were dirty, and all the water bodies were polluted with factory smoke and waste. Not surprisingly, infections and diseases spread in these cities at an alarming rate. Until the availability of cheap means of transportation, factory workers were forced to settle around their factories, which in turn were often built near coal mines and iron foundries.

Gradual improvement of people's lives

As a result of the agrarian and industrial revolution, many people were left without work and livelihood. To get any help, they had to go to the so-called workhouses, where they had to live and work. The conditions in the workhouses were very harsh in order to scare away those who, not wanting to work, would go there just for a roof over their heads and a piece of bread. Men and women were settled in different halves of the house, so the families that got there, willy-nilly, turned out to be broken.

Some of the doctors or rich people tried to do something to alleviate the plight of the poor. For example, a certain Doctor Barnardo organized orphanages. Another such person was General Booth, who founded a Christian organization called the Salvation Army. In the 19th century some laws were passed with the aim of making life easier for people in industrial cities. Among them were laws obliging the city authorities to keep the city clean, build more comfortable houses and open free schools. Since 1909, old-age pensions have appeared. These people receive their pension at the post office. In 1911, a law was passed to insure workers in case of illness or unemployment.

Workers began to unite and create trade unions (trade unions) to defend their interests - for example, to seek higher wages or better working conditions, threatening to strike in case of refusal. At first unions were illegal, but eventually laws were passed that recognized their existence and allowed them to organize pickets (i.e., stand near a factory fence and try to convince workers not to go to work). Some trade unionists, as well as those who supported their views, united in an organization that was called the Labor Party (in English labor party, hence the name Laborites). In the 1906 general election, 29 Labor members won seats in Parliament.

They began to move from manufactories to machine production. The industrial revolution changed the economic face of Europe, it became developed and inaccessible to serf Russia. Nevertheless, progress is a process that sooner or later affects any state. A comprehensive industrial revolution in Russia began only in late XIX century.

Industrial thaw in Russia: causes, prerequisites, lagging factors

The beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia remains a controversial issue today. There are several opinions regarding the beginning of this historical process.

Historian-economist Stanislav Gustavovich Strumilin was the first to name the chronology of the modernization of Russian industry. He designated it within the framework of 1830-1860.

Modern historiography considers the time period from 1850 to 1880 more reasonable.

Prerequisites for a coup:

1. Scientific and technological progress - the invention of steam engines, machine tools and machines that minimize manual labor.
2. The gradual introduction of capitalist relations - the use of civilian workers, the accumulation of capital.

Only by the middle of the 19th century did Russia begin to move onto capitalist lines. But there were many factors that slowed down the industrial revolution. The main and most significant was serfdom. The cheapness of serf labor caused the reluctance of large industrialists to introduce new technologies. Voluntary labor was more a necessity than an aspiration. The internal and external markets were amorphous and not very dynamic. The state stimulated the development of production. The agricultural sector was underdeveloped, which, in turn, affected the dynamics of the domestic national market.

Despite the fact that the industrial revolution in Russia began much later than in Europe and the United States, it led to an innovative type economic development and the formation of new social strata of the population.

Characteristics of the Industrial Revolution

Despite significant pressure from the state, the industrial revolution started, although it was sluggish.

The abolition of serfdom in 1861 led to the formation of new social classes - the proletariat and the industrial bourgeoisie. Freelance workers, formerly serfs, rushed to the cities to get work in large factories and plants, albeit for meager wages. The huge resources of the state and cheap labor gave such enterprises multimillion-dollar profits, which in the best possible way contributed to the development of production and its relative industrialization.

The government is starting to take measures to activate such sectors of the economy as industry and trade. Customs duties on raw materials were repeatedly raised. Import of innovative equipment and export finished products encouraged.

Since 1861, industries such as:

• coal mining;
• metallurgy;
• shipbuilding;
• construction railways;
• light industry: textile and cotton industries.

Banking and credit sphere after a long decline entered a positive direction. More than 40 banks, more than 200 insurance and credit enterprises were created. In addition, the contributions of state banks to the economy have increased several times. In such favorable conditions, an intensive influx of foreign capital begins.

Reforming Russia

Historians associate the beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia not only with the elimination of serfdom, but also with the widespread reform of the state.

• The financial reform of 1860 - the creation of a state bank.
• Tax reform, 1863 - introduction unified system excise taxes and patents.
• Zemstvo reform of 1864 - the activation of handicrafts through the organization of artels.
• "Regulations on duties on the right to trade and crafts" led to the equalization of the estates in the possibility of engaging in private business.

Stages of the industrial revolution

The industrial revolution in Russia began in the middle of the 19th century and took place in three stages:

1861-1881 the birth of capitalism, the reform of the state, the leap in light and heavy industries.

80-90s of the XIX century - the peak of the industrial "spring".

1890s of the 19th century - 1905 - the crisis of capitalism, social and economic life, the completion of the industrial revolution in Russia.

The results of the industrial "boom"

The industrial revolution in Russia began in the middle of the 19th century, brought the serf state with a backward economy to new stage development. Russia has entered a world-historical process that has led to a leap not only in the economy, industry, social sphere, but also significantly changed the worldview of the population of the state. The formation of capitalist relations in one way or another led to a revolution, the overthrow of the monarchy as one of the remnants of the old system.

Nevertheless, the industrial "spring" in the serf state had its own specifics. Features of the industrial revolution in Russia consisted in its "lightning" pace. In a monarchical state, the transition to a machine type of production was not accompanied by a transition to an industrial or agro-industrial type of economy. Despite the leap in industry that took place, it did not lead to the rapid development of mechanical engineering.

What is the industrial revolution and what impact did it have on the development of Europe in the 19th century?

The industrial revolution is one of the most important phenomena in the history of mankind, which allowed a number of countries to enter a period of rapid development of productive forces and put an end to economic backwardness forever. In essence, the entire modern material civilization has become its result. The Industrial Revolution marked the transition from the predominance of the agrarian economy, with its constant threat of crop failures and famine, to a new stage in the development of the economy and a new material level.

Some scientists believe that the industrial revolution is a technical and economic phenomenon associated with the transition from manufactory production based on manual labor to factory production based on machines. But most still believe that the industrial revolution is a set of economic, social and political changes that marked the transformation of machines into the main means of production. Indeed, changes in industry caused major shifts in agriculture, distribution of the population, its composition. Great cities arose, new classes appeared, and social groups. Serious changes followed in the political structure, and then in the spiritual life of society.

The criterion that helps to determine the beginning of the industrial revolution in any country is considered to be the beginning of the formation of the factory system, which is associated with the emergence of a significant number of real factories. In England, a country that took this path earlier than others, factories began to appear everywhere in the 80s. 18th century At the end of the century, France joined it, and already in the 19th century. Other European countries followed suit.

Despite the peculiarities of the industrial revolution in each country, it is still possible to trace its certain logical sequence. First, machine production is mastered by the textile industry. Further, the mastered methods and organization are transferred to other industries and to new areas. The manufacture of machines, hitherto handicraft, stands out as a separate branch of production. At the final stage, the mass distribution of machines and factory production leads to the final victory over the craft. Machines are made by machines. Countries on the way industrial development later leaders, have the opportunity to quickly go through the initial stages of the coup ͵ using the experience already gained.

The industrial revolution in England was completed by the beginning of the 60s. XIX century, in France and the USA - by the beginning of the 70s, by the end of the 80s - in Germany and Austria-Hungary, in the 90s. in the countries of Northern Europe. In general, an industrial society in Europe was formed by the beginning of the 20th century.

The changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution cannot be overestimated. Technique and production technology have fundamentally changed, new industries have appeared: oil, chemical, non-ferrous metals, automotive, machine tool, aviation, widespread use of electricity, and oil and gas as energy carriers. Created technical base allowed to intensify scientific research and ensured the rapid implementation of scientific discoveries. The growth of heavy industry led to the displacement of relatively small enterprises. The centralization and concentration of production led to the emergence of leading enterprises in a number of industries and revealed a trend towards agreements on production and marketing between the largest firms. In the XX century. monopolies have become an integral feature of Western industrial society.

The Industrial Revolution prompted over 60 million Europeans to leave their villages in the last third of the 19th century. Cities and workers' settlements grew rapidly. By the end of the century in Europe, the population of 13 cities had crossed the million mark. In the leading countries, workers began to make up more than half of the total number of inhabitants, and in England - 70%. The structure of the basic classes of society has also changed. The proportion of industrialists has increased. Among the workers, in terms of number and influence, textile workers were replaced by metallurgists - miners, machine builders, railway workers. The number of clerical, technical and commercial employees increased.

The possibilities of a developed industry were quickly reflected in the nature and structure of consumption. A mass market is being formed, focused on ordinary people who received goods of acceptable quality at an affordable price. The standard of living has risen.

Serious shifts have also taken place in the spiritual life. Factories and plants have firmly entered the consciousness of people. The new era was distinguished by a sense of the enormous possibilities of technology and science. Europeans got used to the dynamism of everyday life, constant change.

In the second half of the XIX century. discoveries in the natural sciences have changed ideas about the structure of matter, space, time, movement, the development of flora and fauna, the place of man in nature, and the origin of life on Earth. A paradigm shift has begun in the public mind. The idea of ​​evolution, development is becoming universally recognized. Time is perceived in its infinite extension. The concepts of dynamic and statistical regularities are affirmed.

Of course, not everyone had access to the latest scientific achievements. But shifts in the education system, the enlightenment activities of scientists, the growth of the prestige of science and education did their job and contributed to a change in mass consciousness.

At the same time, liberal ideas were affirmed in European society, which contributed to the democratization of political and public life. Suffrage extended to more and more people, and political parties and those in power could no longer ignore public opinion.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, thanks to the industrial revolution, Europe has taken a major step forward on the path of progress and prosperity.

In Russia in the 20-40s. 19th century there were also technical changes in industry, but the peculiarity here was that it belonged to the circle of those countries in which the transition to the factory system of production took place under the influence of the results already achieved by those states that had embarked on this path earlier. Therefore, the machines imported into Russia then fell into an economic, social and political situation that did not correspond to them, and therefore they could not give the same production effect as in the places of their manufacture. A non-capitalist or not quite capitalist use of machine technology has become widespread. The mass transition to machine production began in the second half of the 1950s. and has become crucial for Russian economy in the post-reform period.

What is the industrial revolution and what impact did it have on the development of Europe in the 19th century? - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "What is the industrial revolution and what impact did it have on the development of Europe in the 19th century?" 2017, 2018.

- 19th century portrait

The development of the portrait in the 19th century was predetermined by the Great French Revolution, which contributed to the solution of new tasks in this genre. In art, a new style becomes dominant - classicism, and therefore the portrait loses the splendor and sugariness of the works of the 18th century and becomes more ....

- Cologne Cathedral in the XIX century.

For several centuries, the cathedral continued to stand in an unfinished state. When in 1790 Georg Forster glorified the soaring slender columns of the choir, which already in the years of its creation was considered a miracle of art, Cologne Cathedral stood in an unfinished frame, ... .

- From the resolution of the XIX All-Union Party Conference.

Option No. 1 Instruction for students CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING STUDENTS Grade "5": 53-54 points Grade "4": 49-52 points Grade "3": 45-48 points Grade "2": 1-44 points To complete the work, you need 1 hour 50 min. – 2 hours. Dear student! Your attention... .

The industrial revolution in Russia began in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century, later than in Western Europe. Its main content was the replacement of manufactory production by factory production. There is a technical re-equipment of industry, the widespread replacement of manual labor by machine, the introduction of various engines and advanced technologies into production. The industrial revolution was accompanied by profound social change, the emergence of new classes characteristic of capitalism: free entrepreneurs (the bourgeoisie) and wage workers (the proletariat).

The prerequisites for the industrial revolution took shape in Russia from the middle of the 18th century. Their appearance was due to: 1) scientific and technological progress(creation of new steam engines and various mechanisms); 2) the emergence of elements of the capitalist structure in the economy (the accumulation of capital and the formation of a permanent market for civilian labor). The preservation of serfdom in Russia slowed down these processes. Its abolition in 1861 accelerated the completion of the industrial revolution in the late 70s and early 80s of the 19th century.

Features of the industrial revolution in Russia: 1) completed in a shorter time than in the countries of Western Europe (England spent about 100 years, France - 70 years), since Russia borrowed technology, equipment, ideas from the West; 2) carried out on the basis public sources accumulation through the use of serf labor. Private entrepreneurs also received resources through serf labor.

New forms of organization of production were quickly introduced in the light industry. Machinery was of foreign origin and was imported mainly from England and Belgium. However, the domestic machine-building industry also began to emerge (St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod).

The formation of civilian workers is connected with the beginning of the industrial revolution. Poor townspeople, state peasants and serfs, who went to work, were employed at manufactories and factories. By 1860, 4/5 of the workers were civilian employees. A system of brutal exploitation of workers has developed in Russia. They received a meager wages, had a 13 - 14-hour working day. The difference in the position of Russian workers from Western European ones was that they depended not only on entrepreneurs, but also on their owners or on the community that sent them to work. The formation of the Russian bourgeoisie also had its own peculiarity. Firstly, the capital necessary to create production accumulated extremely slowly and with many abuses (embezzlement, bribery, extortion). Money in the population). Secondly, for a long time the "young" Russian bourgeoisie was simultaneously engaged in both trade and production. Thirdly, many entrepreneurs came from wealthy serfs. The dynasties of the Russian bourgeoisie gradually took shape - the Sapozhnikovs, Morozovs, Guchkovs, Bibikovs, etc. On the whole, the Russian bourgeoisie was still economically weak and did not play an active role in the political and social life countries.

1. In the last third of the XIX - early XX centuries. in the Russian economy there was a phenomenon called the "industrial revolution", the essence of which was:

• The ubiquity of capitalist relations;
• The rapid growth of the industry;
• The emergence of new classes - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
• Industrial development of Russia in 1861 - early XX century. took place in three stages:
• 1861 - 1881 - the emergence of capitalist relations, the rapid growth of a number of industries;
• 1880s - 1890s - the general rise of industry throughout the country, the peak of industrial development;
• Late XIX - early XX centuries. - the crisis of capitalism, monopolization, the growth of social conflicts, culminating in the revolution of 1905-1907.

The abolition of serfdom in 1861 led to a fundamental change in the labor system - unproductive labor based on legal obligation and personal dependence was replaced by more productive wage labor. Wage labor spread in all spheres of life - both in agriculture, where former serfs turned into agricultural workers, and in the city, where landless liberated peasants went to work. In the last third of the XIX century. appeared in Russia a large number of cheap labor. The increase in the hired labor force was also facilitated by the rapid growth of the country's population - the population of Russia from the middle of the 19th century. to the 1880s increased almost 1.5 times - from 65 to 100 million people.

At the same time, the organization of industrial production by both Russian and foreign entrepreneurs began. As a rule, the first Russian capitalists were large and enterprising urban merchants and capitalists of the "old school" - the owners of pre-reform manufactories.

Due to the large resources of the country and cheap labor force the first industrial enterprises gave profits unprecedented by the standards of Europe, which contributed to further development production.

Especially quickly in 1861 - 1881. industries such as:

• coal mining (increased in 20 years by 9 (!) times);
• construction of railways (the length of roads has grown 14 (!) times over 20 years - from 1.6 thousand km to 23.1 thousand km);
• shipbuilding (the number of ships increased by 3 times - up to 1200);
• metallurgy (the volume of smelting doubled);
• textile industry (production volume increased 6 times). At the same time, there was a rapid development of the financial sector:
• more than 40 large banks were created;
• about 250 insurance and credit companies;
• for 15 years - in 1864 - 1879. - contributions of the State and joint-stock banks to the economy increased by 4 times and reached 1 billion rubles;
• 10 times - from about 10 to 100 million rubles., Increased inflow of foreign capital into the Russian economy.

At the second stage - in the 1880s - 1890s. - the peak of industrial development was reached:

• Russia came out on top in the world in oil and coal production - in 1895 oil was produced 226 (!) times more than it was produced in the year before the reform, and coal - 245 (!) times;
• in 1886 - 1896 iron smelting tripled;
• the number of industrial enterprises has doubled compared to the entire previous history;
• in record time, almost the entire country was connected by railroads;
• the output of agricultural engineering increased almost 10 times;
• Russia became the largest exporter of bread - at the end of the 19th century. more than 400 million poods of grain were exported from Russia annually. Russia's main trading partners in both exports (mainly grain and textiles) and imports (mainly machinery) were Germany, the Netherlands and the United States. The trade turnover with these countries significantly exceeded the trade turnover with other states.

Despite the unprecedented pace of development and the first place in the world in terms of gross (quantitative) production of goods in a number of industries, Russia was significantly technologically lagging behind the developed European countries.

The growth of production was ensured in many respects not due to advanced technologies, but due to the strong exploitation of workers, the total violation of labor protection rules, industrial injuries, etc. This caused an increase in tension between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

2. In the 1880s. a powerful labor movement for social rights is emerging in Russia. The most effective way to defend their rights by the proletariat was the strike - a massive and prolonged cessation of work by a large number of workers with the presentation of social demands. Unlike the individual strike, the mass strike was difficult to fight:

• it was impossible to apply a lockout - to dismiss too many trained workers without affecting production;
• long downtime also caused more damage than meeting the demands of the workers;
• often workers seized factories and the suppression of strikes could lead to the breakdown of equipment.

Often strikes ended in victory for the workers and partial concessions to the bourgeoisie. The most typical concessions on the part of the capitalists were:

• partial salary increase;
• limitation of work at night;
• limitation of fines;
• strengthening safety measures.

At the same time, there were often cases of disagreement:

• strikes were dispersed by the police;
• there were lockouts - mass layoffs;
• strikebreakers were introduced into the environment of the workers, pursuing the line of masters;
• there were cases of bloodshed.

The first major strike in Russia is the Morozov strike - a strike of weavers in Orekhovo-Zuyevo at the Morozov manufactory under the leadership of I. Moiseenko in 1885.

Other major strikes were:

• "Obukhov defense" of 1901 - the capture by workers of the largest metallurgical plant in St. Petersburg;
• a general strike of workers in the south of Russia, in which more than 200 thousand people took part.

The peculiarities of the first Russian strikes were their spontaneity and lack of a clear organization.

At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. Russia's industrial development was gripped by a crisis. Causes of the crisis of 1898 - 1905. were:

• monopolization of the economy - almost the entire Russian economy was eventually concentrated in the hands of several large monopolistic associations, for example, Produgol, Prodmetal, Prodvagon, Gvozd, etc., which began to dictate to both producers and consumers, establishing profitable only prices monopolies;
• the merging of banks with industry, the growth of financial fraud, from which ordinary workers suffered in the first place;
• the crisis of overproduction, the inability to sell goods, which engulfed the textile industry, metallurgy and agriculture;
• global crisis of capitalism at the beginning of the 20th century, trade wars between countries.

Crisis of capitalism 1898 - 1905 led to a drop in production and the standard of living of most workers, increased social tension. Along with other circumstances - the imperfection of the political system, the strengthening of the revolutionary movement, this crisis contributed to the beginning of the first Russian revolution of 1905 - 1907.