Scientific and technological progress and its main directions. Main directions of scientific and technological progress. and intensification of production

Scientific and technological progress (STP) should be understood as a continuous process of quantitative growth and qualitative improvement of all elements of social production, both material and material, objective (means of labor and objects of labor), and subjective (production workers), as well as improving methods of combining them into production process based on the latest achievements of science and technology.

This process finds its expression in the creation of new and improvement of existing equipment and technology; growth of mechanization and automation of production; creation and use of new types of raw materials, fuel, energy and materials; mastering new and improving previously produced products, improving their quality; scientific organization labor and production management; growth in the qualification and educational level of those employed in the national economy, changes in the qualification and sectoral structure of production and employment, etc.

The basis of scientific and technological progress is scientific knowledge - fundamental and applied research and development aimed at understanding the laws of nature and society and underlying the creation of new and improvement of already used technology. The current stage of scientific and technical progress is called the scientific and technological revolution (STR). Its distinctive features are:

1. Scientific and technological revolution is based on a qualitatively new level of scientific development. It is based on the fundamental discoveries of modern natural science related to physics, chemistry, biology, cybernetics, cosmology, which open new horizons in the knowledge of matter and the forms of its movement; they determine the development of nuclear energy, laser technology, microbiology and cybernetic control.

2. Transformation of science into a direct productive force, and itself material production– in the technical application of scientific achievements. During the scientific and technological revolution period, the period for the implementation of scientific achievements sharply decreased, and production itself began to rely directly on the achievements of science. Scientific and technological revolution is actively being introduced into technical, economic and social life society.

3. The role of technology has changed radically. It began to invade the sphere of human mental activity. The symbol of scientific and technological revolution has become cybernetic electronic machines, freeing production from the limitations generated by the ideological and physiological abilities of humans. They allow a number of mental and logical functions to be transferred to the machine.

Scientific and technological revolution as a revolution is generally characterized by fundamental changes, spasmodic transitions from one qualitative state to another. Scientific and technological revolution is also characterized by progressive development, i.e. any change for the better, advanced, more perfect. Thus, scientific and technological progress in terms of the content of ongoing processes should be interpreted as a broader concept than scientific and technological progress. It includes both evolutionary and revolutionary transformations in technology.

Scientific and technological progress is the basis for the intensification of production. It has a decisive impact on all factors of economic development, allows for a more rational use of labor resources, and achieves the production of high-quality products.

The progress of science and technology provides a solution to such an important socio-economic problem as making work easier and enriching it with creative content.

Real savings labor is determined by the use in social production of scientific and technical achievements, embodied in new means of production, new forms of combining personal and material factors.

The accelerated development of social production is determined by the fact that:

The pace of technology development exceeds the growth rate of production;

The development of science is ahead of the development of technology. The development of science must significantly exceed the growth rate of the entire national economy as a whole. This is because:

1) the efficiency of social production directly depends on scientific and technological progress, and scientific technical progress, first of all, from the development of science;

2) the dynamics of labor productivity, the total social product, increasingly depends on the impact of science on production through new technology, production organization technology;

3) expanded reproduction in modern conditions is ensured only if science outstrips the development of technology, and technology develops ahead of the development of production as a whole.

The transformation of science into a direct productive force means:

1) orientation of science to the needs of society and existing conditions of reproduction, ensuring mutual influence of science and production;

2) materialization of scientific findings in means of labor and technological processes, publications, as well as a guarantee of highly efficient functioning of the logistics business;

3) providing workers with the required knowledge;

4) implementation of production management on a scientific basis.

The transformation of science into a direct productive force is carried out on the basis of relationships, on the one hand, between scientific work and labor in practical application science in production and, on the other hand, between labor in material production and labor implementing the application of science.

Any state, in order to ensure an effective economy and not lag behind other countries in its development, must pursue a unified state scientific and technical policy.

A unified scientific and technological policy is a system of targeted measures that ensure the comprehensive development of science and technology and the introduction of their results into the economy. This requires a choice of priorities in the development of science and technology and those sectors in which scientific achievements should be realized first. This is also due to the limited resources of the state to conduct large-scale research in all areas of scientific and technical progress and their implementation in practice. Thus, at each stage of its development, the state must determine the main directions of scientific and technical progress and provide conditions for their implementation.

The main directions of scientific and technical progress are those areas of development of science and technology, the implementation of which in practice will ensure maximum economic and social efficiency in the shortest possible time.

There are national (general) and sectoral (private) areas of scientific and technical progress. National - areas of scientific and technical progress that at this stage and in the future are a priority for a country or group of countries. Industry areas are areas of scientific and technical progress that are the most important and priority for individual sectors of the national economy and industry. For example, the coal industry is characterized by certain areas of scientific and technical progress, and mechanical engineering by others based on their specifics.

At one time, the following areas of scientific and technical progress were identified as national ones: electrification of the national economy; comprehensive mechanization and automation of production; chemicalization of production. The most important, or decisive, of all these areas is electrification, since without it other areas of scientific and technical progress are unthinkable. It should be noted that for their time these were successfully chosen areas of scientific and technical progress, which played a positive role in accelerating, developing and increasing production efficiency. They are also important at this stage of development of social production, so we will dwell on them in more detail.

Another important area of scientific and technical progress is comprehensive mechanization and automation of production. Mechanization and automation of production processes is a set of measures that provide for the widespread replacement of manual operations with machines and mechanisms, the introduction of automatic machines, individual lines and production facilities. Mechanization of production processes means replacing manual labor with machines, mechanisms and other equipment.

The mechanization of production is continuously developing and improving, moving from lower to higher forms: from manual labor to partial, small and complex mechanization and further to the highest form of mechanization - automation.

In mechanized production, a significant part of labor operations is performed by machines and mechanisms, and a smaller part is performed manually. This is partial (non-comprehensive) mechanization, in which there may be separate weakly mechanized units.

Integrated mechanization is a way of performing the entire range of work included in a given production cycle using machines and mechanisms. The highest degree of mechanization is the automation of production processes, which allows the entire cycle of work to be carried out without the direct participation of a person in it, only under his control.

Automation is a new type of production, which is prepared by the cumulative development of science and technology, primarily by transferring production to an electronic basis, through the use of electronics and new advanced technical means. The need to automate production is caused by the inability of human organs to control complex technological processes with the required speed and accuracy. Huge energy powers, high speeds, ultra-high and ultra-low temperature conditions turned out to be subject only to automatic control and management.

Currently, with a high level of mechanization of main production processes (80%), in most industries, auxiliary processes are still insufficiently mechanized (25-40); many works are performed manually. Largest quantity auxiliary workers are used in transport and movement of goods, in loading and unloading operations. If we take into account that the labor productivity of one such worker is almost 20 times lower than that of someone employed in complex mechanized areas, then the urgency of the problem of further mechanization of auxiliary work becomes obvious. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the fact that mechanization of auxiliary work in industry is 3 times cheaper than the main one.

But the main and most important form is production automation. Currently, computers are increasingly entering all areas of science and technology. In the future, these machines will become the basis of industrial automation and will control the automation.

The creation of new automatic technology will mean a broad transition from three-link machines (working machine - transmission - engine) to four-link machine systems. The fourth link is cybernetic devices, with the help of which enormous power is controlled.

The main stages of production automation are: semi-automatic machines, automatic machines, automatic lines, sections and automatic workshops, factories and automatic factories. The first stage, which represents a transitional form from simple machines to automatic ones, is semi-automatic machines. The fundamental feature of machines in this group is that a number of functions previously performed by humans are transferred to the machine, but the worker still retains certain operations that are usually difficult to automate. The highest level is the creation of factories and automatic factories, i.e. fully automated enterprises.

The main indicators characterizing the level of mechanization and automation are:

production mechanization coefficient

where Kmp is the coefficient of production mechanization;

V M – volume of products produced using machines and mechanisms;

V total – the total volume of products produced at the enterprise;

coefficient of mechanization (automation) of labor

where N M is the number of workers employed in mechanized (automated) work, people;

N p – number of workers performing manual operations;

coefficient of mechanization (automation) of work

where V M is the amount of work performed by mechanized (automated) method;

V total – total amount of work.

the level of automation in practice is often determined from the expression

where K a is the quantity of automatic equipment in pieces or its cost in rubles;

K – quantity or cost of non-automatic equipment.

It should be noted that this indicator of the level of automation, determined on the basis of a comparison of the automatic and non-automatic equipment used, does not accurately characterize the level of automation at the enterprise.

To a certain extent, the level of production mechanization is also characterized by such an indicator as the technical equipment of labor (Kt.v.), which is determined from the expression:

where Fa – average annual cost the active part of fixed production assets;

N is the average number of employees of the enterprise or workers.

Chemicalization is the process of production and use of chemical products in the national economy and everyday life, the introduction of chemical methods, processes and materials into the national economy. Chemicalization as a process is developing in two directions: the use of advanced chemical technologies in the production of various products; production and widespread use of chemical materials in the national economy and everyday life.

In educational and specialized literature there is no unambiguous interpretation of the essence of scientific and technological progress and scientific revolution. But in general terms, the following definitions of these concepts can be given.

NTP- this is a continuous process of implementation new technology and technology, organization of production and labor based on achievements and implementation of scientific knowledge. The concept of NTP is broader than the concept of scientific and technological revolution. The scientific and technological revolution is an integral part of scientific and technological progress.

NTR- this is the highest level of scientific and technological progress, meaning fundamental changes in science and technology that have a significant impact on social production.

Thus, scientific and technological progress is an integral and more significant part of scientific and technological progress. But if scientific and technological progress can develop both on an evolutionary and revolutionary basis, then scientific and technological progress is a spasmodic process. This process is shown schematically in Fig. 6.1.

There are macro- and micro-revolutions.

Macro- a revolution, the results of which most fundamentally affect all social production or many of its spheres. Examples of a macro-revolution can be electrification, the introduction of computers, radio technology, etc.;

Micro- a revolution, the results of which affect only certain sectors of the national economy or industry, for example, the homeless production of steel in ferrous metallurgy, state-of-the-art mining in mechanical engineering, etc.

Rice. 6.1. Development of scientific and technological progress

Thus, the main differences between macro and micro revolutions are the scale of distribution and the significance of the results of scientific and technological revolution.

Throughout the existence and development of mankind, many scientific and technological revolutions have occurred, and the stages of this development are named according to the evolution of the tools used: Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age. Many scientists and experts say that the Iron Age in which we now live will be replaced by the age of light metals. Our century is most often called the century of the atom, cybernetics, computers, etc.

Modern scientific and technological revolution differs significantly from previous ones in terms of quality parameters and the scale of the new tools and technological processes used. It has a number of features that distinguish it from its predecessors. These features are as follows:

Transformation of science into a direct productive force of society. It is known that productive forces include means of production (tools + objects of labor) and labor. But it does not follow from this that science turns into the fourth element of the productive forces of society; it simply influences in the most significant way each of these elements in a qualitative sense, thereby strengthening each of them, and, consequently, the productive forces of society as a whole;

Reducing the time interval from the appearance of discoveries and inventions to their implementation in practice. For example, it took humanity 112 years for photography from the scientific field to be used in practice, for an electric motor - 56 years, for a quantum generator - 2 years. But this does not mean that now all discoveries and inventions can be put into practice in such a short time;

Advancing the development of science, i.e. theory is ahead of practice. And from this follows a very important conclusion: it is now possible to quite accurately predict what equipment and technology will appear in real life in 5-10-20 or more years;

Expanding the boundaries of penetration of modern scientific and technological revolution and its scale; modern science is penetrating deeper and deeper into the knowledge of space, earth and ocean, atom and man and other spheres.

The scale of scientific and technological progress means not only the scale of this knowledge, but also the scale of implementation.

Modern scientific and technological revolution, like previous ones, primarily affected the tools of labor and weakly affected technology, objects of labor and management. And if it truly affects these elements of production, the economic and social consequences will be even more significant. Therefore, the center of gravity of scientific and applied research needs to be reoriented precisely towards these areas.

Any state, in order to ensure an effective economy and not lag behind other countries in its development, must pursue a unified state scientific and technological policy.

Unified scientific and technical policy- a system of targeted measures to ensure the comprehensive development of science and technology and the introduction of their results into the economy. This requires a choice of priorities in the development of science and technology and those sectors in which scientific achievements should be realized first. This is also due to the limited resources of the state to conduct large-scale research in all areas of scientific and technical progress and their implementation in practice. Thus, at each stage of its development, the state must determine the main directions of scientific and technical progress and provide conditions for their implementation.

Electrification- the process of production and widespread use of electricity in public production and everyday life. This is a two-way process: on the one hand, the production of electricity, on the other, its consumption in various fields, starting from production processes occurring in all sectors of the national economy, and ending with everyday life. These sides are inseparable from each other, since the production and consumption of electricity coincide in time, which is determined by physical features electricity as a form of energy. Therefore, the essence of electrification consists in the organic unity of producing electricity and replacing it with other forms of energy in various spheres of social production that use energy to one degree or another. Since electrification is the unity of production and consumption of electricity, the study of the economic problems of this process should not be limited to one aspect of it, which, unfortunately, is the case to this day.

The importance of further electrification development is due to many reasons, but the main ones are:

The advantage of electricity compared to other types of energy. It consists in the fact that electricity is easily transmitted over long distances, provides greater speed and intensity of production processes, can be divided and concentrated in any quantities, and converted into other types of energy (mechanical, thermal, light, etc.);

The level of electrification does not yet meet the needs of the country;

The possibilities of electrification in the development of the country's productive forces are far from being exhausted.

In fact, only the first stage of electrification was completed, in which the physical properties of electricity were used to transform into mechanical and light types of energy. This made it possible to electrify mainly power processes that use energy as a motive force. The process of displacement of all other energy carriers by electricity in lighting has ended. The electrification of power processes has radically transformed the propulsion system and, in accordance with it, the tools of labor in the branches of material production, especially industry.

However, at the first stage, electrification did not affect other functional elements of the production process, primarily the technological principles of processing objects of labor. Electrical energy participates in these processes only indirectly, being converted into mechanical energy. Of course, as tools improved, certain aspects and elements of technology developed, but its fundamental principles did not change. The necessary shapes and physical properties of the object of labor are still given by mechanical influences on it (cutting, drilling, grinding, etc.) using various tools. This poses certain obstacles to further increasing labor productivity.

Finally, current technology is also very wasteful in terms of materialized labor, as it causes large waste of processed raw materials. Thus, about 25-31% of ferrous metals consumed by mechanical engineering are thrown into waste in the form of shavings, sawdust, and waste.

Thus, the need for fundamental changes in the technological principles of processing objects of labor is determined by the urgent needs of the development of social production. The process of transforming the subject of labor must take place without the immediate and direct participation of a person in it and be characterized by low operational efficiency.

One of the main directions of fundamental changes in technology is its transition to the use of electricity as a working contractor that directly processes the object of labor. Technology based on the thermal effect on the object of labor already uses the property of electricity to be easily converted into thermal energy. Electrothermal processes are widely developed in ferrous metallurgy (smelting electric steel, ferroalloys), metalworking (heating and melting of metals) and metal welding.

Electrochemical technology, which is widely used to produce a number of non-ferrous, light and rare metals (aluminum, magnesium, sodium, titanium, etc.), as well as a number of organic compounds by electrosynthesis, is based on the property of electricity to serve as a reagent in chemical processes.

The electrification of mechanical technology means that electricity should displace and replace the working tool of a mechanical tool (a cutter in metalworking). Electricity will begin to perform the same function as the tool of a mechanical tool, i.e. actually influence the material being processed (electrophysical technology). Such types of electrophysical metal processing technology as electric spark, electric pulse and electric contact have been developed and are used. Electrophysical methods based on the influence of an electric field and electric charges on the processed raw materials, electrical separation, and electroforming are beginning to be introduced. These processes can be used in the most various industries- textile, engineering, mining, building materials industry.

Proposed in principle new way cutting materials - using a laser beam. Quantum generators are used in a number of branches of mechanical engineering, displacing mechanical metal-cutting machines. Plasma jet technology has been developed and has begun to be introduced into the production of many chemical products.

Electrification is becoming one of the main areas of fundamental transformation of technology because it has many technological and economic advantages. Electrical processing improves the quality, reliability and durability of already known types of products, allows you to create products with new consumer properties, which expands the scope of production and personal consumption.

The wider use of electricity in technological processes is evidenced by the following data. If in 1928 2% was used for technological purposes, now it is more than 30% of all electricity consumed in industry.

Electrification level characterize the following indicators:

Overall electrification rate, which is defined as the ratio electrical energy to the mass of all types of energy consumed by an industry, sub-industry, association (enterprise);

Drive electrification coefficient - the ratio of electrical energy to the mass of all types of energy used to drive machines, equipment and various mechanisms;

The share of electricity consumed directly in technological processes (electrolysis, electric smelting, electric welding, etc.) in the total volume of electricity consumed for production needs;

Electricity ratio of labor is the ratio of consumed electricity (minus electricity used for technological purposes) to the number of employees or to time worked for a certain period (usually a year).

Analysis of these indicators over time allows us to judge the development of such an important area of scientific and technical progress as electrification.

The importance of electrification lies in the fact that it is the basis for mechanization and automation of production, as well as chemicalization of production, helps to increase production efficiency: increasing labor productivity, improving product quality, reducing its cost, increasing production volume and profit at the enterprise. Thus, a direct connection has long been established between productivity and the electrical equipment of labor. Electrification is also of great importance for solving many social problems: heating and lighting of residential buildings, improving working conditions in production, wider use of a wide variety of household appliances, etc.

Another important area of scientific and technical progress is comprehensive mechanization and automation of production.

Mechanization and automation of production processes- this is a set of measures providing for the widespread replacement of manual operations with machines and mechanisms, the introduction of automatic machines, separate lines and production facilities.

Mechanization of production processes means replacing manual labor with machines, mechanisms and other equipment.

In mechanized production, a significant part of labor operations is performed by machines and mechanisms, and a smaller part is performed manually. This partial (non-complex) mechanization, in which there may be separate weakly mechanized units.

Integrated mechanization- this is a way of performing the entire complex of work included in a given production cycle using machines and mechanisms.

The highest degree of mechanization is automation of production processes, which allows you to carry out the entire cycle of work without the direct participation of a person in it, only under his control.

Currently, with a high level of mechanization of main production processes (80%), in most industries, auxiliary processes are still insufficiently mechanized (25-40); many works are performed manually. The largest number of auxiliary workers are used in transport and movement of goods, and in loading and unloading operations. If we take into account that the labor productivity of one such worker is almost 20 times lower than that of someone employed in complex mechanized areas, then the urgency of the problem of further mechanization of auxiliary work becomes obvious. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the fact that mechanization of auxiliary work in industry is 3 times cheaper than the main one.

The main indicators characterizing level of mechanization and automation, are:

Production mechanization coefficient

where Kmp is the coefficient of production mechanization;

V M - volume of products produced using machines and mechanisms;

V total - the total volume of products produced at the enterprise;

Coefficient of mechanization (automation) of labor (K^.t)

where N M is the number of workers employed in mechanized (automated) work, people;

Np is the number of workers performing manual operations;

Coefficient of mechanization (automation) of work (Kr)

where V M is the amount of work performed in a mechanized (automated) way;

V total - total volume of work;

The level of automation Y a in practice is quite often determined from the expression

where K a is the quantity of automatic equipment in pieces or its cost in rubles;

K - quantity or cost of non-automatic equipment.

To a certain extent, the level of mechanization of production is also characterized by such an indicator as the technical equipment of labor (Kt.v.), which is determined from the expression

where Fa is the average annual cost of the active part of fixed production assets;

N is the average number of employees of the enterprise or workers.

The economic and social significance of mechanization and automation of production lies in the fact that they make it possible to replace manual labor, especially heavy labor, with machines and automatic machines, increase labor productivity and, on this basis, ensure real or conditional release of workers, improve the quality of products, reduce labor intensity and production costs , increase production volume and thereby provide the enterprise with higher financial results, which makes it possible to improve the well-being of workers and their families.

Chemicalization- the process of production and use of chemical products in the national economy and everyday life, the introduction of chemical methods, processes and materials into the national economy.

Chemicalization as a process is developing in two directions: the use of advanced chemical technologies in the production of various products; production and widespread use of chemical materials in the national economy and everyday life.

In general terms chemicalization allows:

Dramatically intensify technological processes and thereby increase production output per unit of time;

Reduce the material intensity of public and industrial production. So, 1 ton of plastic will replace 5 tons of metal;

Reduce the labor intensity of products through the introduction of robotics;

Significantly expand the range, range and quality of products and thereby better meet the needs of production and the population for consumer goods;

Accelerate the pace of scientific and technical progress. For example, the creation of spacecraft was hardly possible without the use of lightweight, durable and heat-resistant artificial materials with predetermined properties.

From all this it follows that chemicalization has a very significant and direct effect on production efficiency. Moreover, this influence is diverse.

There is also a negative side to chemicalization - chemical production, as a rule, is hazardous industries, and to neutralize them, additional funds must be spent.

The basis for the chemicalization of public production is the development of the chemical industry in the Russian Federation.

The main indicators of the level of chemicalization are divided into specific and general.

Private indicators reflect certain aspects of the process of chemicalization of the sphere of material production and everyday life. Among these indicators are the following:

The share of synthetic rubber, chemical fibers, synthetic detergents and others in their overall balance;

Consumption of chemicals (feed preparations, mineral fertilizers, chemical protection products, etc.) per unit of livestock and poultry products, per hectare of usable area;

Costs of chemicals and building parts, structures made of chemical materials per 1 million construction and installation works of industrial, cultural, household and housing construction;

Production of plastics and synthetic resins as a percentage of steel production by weight and volume, etc.

General indicators characterize the level of development of chemicalization in the country as a whole.

These indicators include:

Share of chemical industry products in total industrial production;

Production of plastics and synthetic resins per capita;

The share of artificial and synthetic materials in the total volume of materials consumed;

Share of products produced using chemical technologies, etc.

Above we examined the main directions of scientific and technological progress, which are common and long-term for all sectors of the national economy. The state at each stage of its development must determine priority areas of scientific and technical progress and ensure their development.

It should be noted that during the end of the CMEA, a comprehensive long-term scientific and technological progress program was developed and the following priority areas were identified in this program: comprehensive automation of production; electronization of the national economy; development of nuclear power industry; creation of new materials and technologies for their production; development of biotechnology; creation and development of other advanced technologies. In our opinion, these were well-chosen priority areas for the development of scientific and technical progress, which can be called acceptable for our country in the near future.

EU countries implement comprehensive program The NTP is called “Eureka”, and it essentially contains the same priority areas of the NTP. In Japan, the list of priority areas includes more than 33, but the development of biotechnology is in first place.

Let's consider the essence of some advanced technologies.

Biotechnology- one of the most important areas of scientific and technological progress, a new fast-growing branch of science and production, based on the industrial application of natural and purposefully created living systems (primarily microorganisms). Production based on biological processes arose in ancient times (baking, winemaking, cheese making). Thanks to advances in immunology and microbiology, the production of antibiotics and vaccines began to develop. Biotechnology products have found wide application in medicine and agriculture. After the Second World War, feed protein began to be produced using biotechnology methods (oil and waste from the pulp and paper industry are used as raw materials). In the 50s, the DNA double helix model was discovered. In the 70s, a technique was created for isolating a gene from DNA, as well as a technique for propagating the desired gene. As a result of these discoveries, genetic engineering arose. The introduction of foreign genetic information into a living organism and techniques that force the organism to implement this information constitute one of the most promising areas in the development of biotechnology. Using genetic engineering methods, it was possible to obtain interferon and insulin.

Flexible Automated Manufacturing (FAP) - an automated production system in which, on the basis of appropriate technical means and certain solutions, the possibility of prompt readjustment for the production of new products is ensured within a fairly wide range of its range and parameters. GAP began in the 50s in connection with the creation of CNC machines. Major achievements in robotics, the development of various automated control systems, CAD, and the emergence of microprocessors have dramatically expanded the possibilities for the creation and implementation of GAP. Modern GAPs include:

Computer-aided design systems;

Automated control of technological preparation of production, numerical program devices;

Robots (manipulators);

Automated vehicles;

Automated warehouses;

Automated systems for monitoring technological processes and product quality;

Automated control and enterprise management systems.

GAP can significantly reduce the time for design and reconfiguration of production for the release of new products.

Robots, robotics - a field of science and technology related to the study, creation and use of a fundamentally new technical means of complex automation of production processes - robotic systems.

The term “robot” was introduced by the Czech writer K. Capek in 1920.

Depending on the main functions there are:

Manipulation robotic systems;

Mobile, moving in space;

Information robotic systems.

Robots and robotics are the basis for comprehensive mechanization and automation of production processes.

A rotary line (from the Latin rato - I rotate) is an automatic line of machines, the operating principle of which is based on the joint movement around the circumference of the tool and the object being processed by it. The discovery of the rotor principle belongs to the Soviet scientist Academician L.N. Koshkin.

The simplest rotary device consists of disks located on one shaft, on which the tool, workpiece holders and copiers (simple means that ensure coordinated interaction of the tool, holder and workpiece) are mounted.

Rotary lines are used in packaging, packaging, stamping, casting, assembly, pressing, painting, etc.

The advantage of rotary lines over conventional automation means is simplicity, reliability, accuracy, and enormous productivity.

The main disadvantage is low flexibility. But it has been overcome in rotary-conveyor lines, in which the tool blocks are located not on the rotor disks, but on the conveyor that goes around them. In this case, automatic replacement of tools and thereby reconfiguring lines to produce new products does not cause any particular difficulties.

There are other advanced production technologies, but all of them are characterized by one very important circumstance - more high performance and efficiency.

At the present stage and in the future, it is hardly possible to find a factor that would have such a strong influence on production, the economy and social processes in society, such as the acceleration of scientific and technical progress.

In general terms, the acceleration of scientific and technological progress creates several types of effects: economic, resource, technical, social.

Economic effect- this is, in essence, an increase in labor productivity and a decrease in labor intensity, a decrease in material intensity and production costs, an increase in profits and profitability.

Resource effect- this is the release of resources in the enterprise: material, labor and financial.

Technical effect- this is the emergence of new equipment and technology, discoveries, inventions and rationalization proposals, know-how and other innovations.

Social effect- this is an increase in the material and cultural standard of living of citizens, a more complete satisfaction of their needs for goods and services, improvement of working conditions and safety precautions, a reduction in the share of heavy manual labor, etc.

These effects can be achieved only if the state creates the necessary conditions for accelerating scientific and technological progress and manages modern scientific and technological progress in the direction necessary for society. Otherwise, there may be negative social consequences for society in the form of pollution environment, extinction of the animal world in rivers and lakes, etc.

Foreign and domestic practice has long proven that enterprises, especially large and medium-sized ones, cannot count on success without systematic forecasting and planning of scientific and technical progress. In general, forecasting is a scientifically based prediction of the development of socio-economic and scientific and technical trends.

A scientific and technical forecast is a reasonable probabilistic assessment of the prospects for the development of certain areas of science, engineering and technology, as well as the resources and organizational measures required for this. Forecasting scientific and technical progress at an enterprise makes it possible to look into the future and see what the most likely changes may occur in the field of equipment and technology used, as well as in manufactured products, and how this will affect the competitiveness of the enterprise.

Forecasting scientific and technical progress at an enterprise is, in essence, finding the most likely and promising ways for the development of an enterprise in the technical field.

The object of forecasting can be equipment, technology and their parameters, organization of production and labor, enterprise management, new products, required finances, research work, training of scientific personnel, etc.

The emergence of fundamentally new discoveries and inventions;

Areas of use of already made discoveries;

The emergence of new designs, machines, equipment, technologies and their distribution in production.

In terms of time, forecasts can be: short-term (up to 2-3 years), medium-term (up to 5-7 years), long-term (up to 15-20 years).

It is very important that the enterprise achieves continuity of forecasting, i.e. the presence of all temporary forecasts, which must be periodically reviewed, clarified and extended.

Domestic and foreign practice There are about 150 different methods for developing a forecast, but in practice the following methods are most widely used:

Extrapolation methods;

Methods of expert assessments;

Modeling methods.

The essence extrapolation method consists in extending the patterns that have developed in science and technology in the pre-forecast period to the future. The disadvantage of this method is that it does not take into account many factors that may appear in the forecast period and significantly change the existing predictive pattern (trend), which can significantly affect the accuracy of the forecast.

Extrapolation methods are most appropriate to use for predicting areas of science and technology that change over time in an evolutionary way, including for predicting processes that develop extensively. When forecasting new directions in the development of science and technology, methods that take into account advanced information about new technical ideas and principles are more effective. One of these methods may be the method of expert assessments.

Expert assessment methods are based on statistical processing of forecast estimates obtained by surveying highly qualified specialists in relevant fields.

There are several methods of expert assessments. An individual questionnaire allows you to find out the independent opinion of experts. The Delphi method involves conducting a secondary survey after the experts have read the initial assessments of their colleagues. If there is a fairly close agreement of opinions, the “image” of the problem is expressed using average estimates. The group forecasting method is based on a preliminary discussion of the “tree of goals” and the development of collective assessments by the relevant commissions.

A preliminary exchange of opinions increases the validity of assessments, but creates the opportunity for individual experts to be subject to the influence of the most authoritative members of the group. In this regard, the method of collective generation of ideas can be used - “brainstorming”, in which each member of a group of 10-15 people independently expresses original ideas and proposals. Their critical assessment is made only after the end of the meeting.

There are also a variety of forecasting methods based on modeling: logical, informational and mathematical-statistical. These forecasting methods are not widely used in enterprises, mainly due to their complexity and lack of necessary information.

Generally NTP forecasting includes:

Establishment of the forecast object;

Choosing a forecasting method;

Development of the forecast itself and its verification (probabilistic assessment).

After forecasting comes NTP planning process at the enterprise. When developing it, you must adhere to the following principles:

priority. This principle means that the plan must include the most important and promising directions Scientific and technological progress provided for in the forecast, the implementation of which will provide the enterprise with significant economic and social benefits not only for the immediate period of time, but also for the future. Compliance with the principle of priority follows from the limited resources in the enterprise;

continuity of planning. The essence of this principle is that the enterprise should develop short-term, medium-term and long-term scientific and technical progress plans that would flow from each other, which will ensure the implementation of this principle;

end-to-end planning. All components of the “science - production” cycle should be planned, and not its individual components. As is known, the “science - production” cycle consists of the following elements: fundamental research; exploratory research; applied research; design developments; creation of a prototype; technological preparation of production; release of new products and their replication. This principle can be fully implemented only at large enterprises, where it is possible to implement the entire “science - production” cycle;

complexity of planning. The NTP plan should be closely linked with other sections of the enterprise’s economic and social development plan: production program, plan capital investments, labor and personnel plan, cost and profit plan, financial plan. In this case, first a scientific and technical progress plan is developed, and then the remaining sections of the economic and social development plan of the enterprise;

economic feasibility and resource availability. The NTP plan should include only economically justified measures (i.e., beneficial for the enterprise) and provided with the necessary resources. Quite often, this most important principle of scientific and technical progress planning is not observed, and hence its weak feasibility.

To provide an economic justification for the introduction of new equipment and technology, and the production of new products, the enterprise must develop a business plan. It is needed not only to ensure that the enterprise’s employees are convinced of the profitability of a particular project, but also to attract investors, especially foreign ones, if the enterprise does not have or does not have enough of its own funds to implement a profitable project.

The main method of planning scientific and technological progress at an enterprise is the program-target method.

Sections of the NTP plan depend on the current situation at the enterprise, the specific needs of forecast estimates and the availability of own and borrowed resources.

The scientific and technical progress plan at an enterprise may consist of the following sections:

1. Implementation of scientific and technical programs.

2. Introduction of new equipment and technology.

3. Introduction of computers .

4. Improving the organization of production and labor.

5. Sale and purchase of patents, licenses, know-how.

6. Plan for standardization and metrological support.

8. Improving the quality and ensuring the competitiveness of products.

9. Carrying out research and development work.

10. Economic justification NTP plan.

The NTP plan may include other sections, since there is no strict regulation on the number and names of sections.

After the NTP plan has been drawn up and approved, taking this plan into account, the remaining sections of the economic and social development enterprises. To adjust the remaining sections of this plan, it is necessary to know how the implementation of the scientific and technical progress plan will affect the technical and economic indicators of the enterprise (profit, cost, labor productivity, etc.) in the planning period.

The planned increase in profit from the production of new or modernized products is determined by the formula

where DP is the planned increase in profit from the production of new or modernized products;

C n, C st - wholesale (sales) price of new and old products;

Сн, Сст - cost of production per unit of new and old products;

V H, V ST - volume of production before and after project implementation.

The planned reduction in material costs from the implementation of the project can be determined by the formula

where DMZ is the savings in material costs in the planning period from the implementation of the project;

N st, N n - old and new consumption rates per unit of production;

P is the price of a unit of material resource.

The amount of reduction in product costs from the introduction of innovations is determined by the formula

Where DC is the amount of reduction in production costs due to the introduction of innovations;

C 1, C 2 - cost per unit of production before and after the introduction of innovations;

V 2 is the volume of product output after the introduction of innovations.

The introduction of innovations also affects the growth of labor productivity (output). The growth rate of labor productivity (LP) can be determined by the formula

where PTpl, PT 0 - labor productivity in the planning and reporting period.

This influence can also be determined by the formula

where D PT is the rate of increase in labor productivity;

D N total, - the total value of the real or conditional release of workers due to the introduction of new technology;

N is the total number of personnel at the planned volume and basic labor productivity.

Example. At the mine for reporting period the annual volume of coal production was 1.2 million tons, and the average headcount was 1000 people. The plan for the next year, through the implementation of organizational and technical measures, provides for the conditional release of 200 people (including through the implementation of activity No. 1 - 50 people, activity No. 2 - 120 people, activity No. 3 - 30 people), to increase coal production by 20%. It is known that the growth of average wages will be 7%, and the share of wages in total costs will be 30%.

Determine the impact of the introduction of innovations on labor productivity and the cost of coal mining.

Solution

1. We determine labor productivity for the reporting period (LP):

2. We determine labor productivity for the planning period (PTpl):

3. Determine the rate of increase in labor productivity (D PT):

4. We determine the rate of increase in labor productivity using another method (for verification) using the formula

including through the implementation of activity No. 1:

due to event No. 2:

due to event No. 3:

Examination. D PT =5+12+3= 20%.

5. We determine the impact of labor productivity growth on the cost (C) of products using the formula

where Iзп is the average wage index in the planning period;

Ipt - labor productivity index in the planning period;

Salary is the share of wages in the cost of coal production.

Consequently, due to the growth in labor productivity, the cost of coal production in the planning period will decrease by 3.3%, since the rate of increase in labor productivity is faster than the rate of increase in average wages (20 > 7).

conclusions

Economic and social processes in society are influenced by many factors, but the acceleration of scientific and technical progress is the main one. STP is a continuous process of introducing new equipment and technology, organizing production and labor based on achievements and the implementation of knowledge. The concept of NTP is broader than the concept of scientific and technological revolution. The scientific and technological revolution is an integral part of scientific and technological progress.

Any state, in order to keep up with its scientific and technological development, must develop and implement a unified state technical policy. A unified state scientific and technical policy means the selection of the most important areas of scientific and technical progress and their implementation with strong state support.

With the transition to market relations in Russia, the state did not pay due attention to the development of science and technology, which led to an even greater lag of our country behind the developed countries of the world in the field of priority areas of scientific and technical progress and, naturally, did not contribute to Russia’s exit from the crisis situation. The situation is aggravated by the fact that Russia has not yet developed a unified state scientific and technical policy and the state allocates meager funds for the development of fundamental science.

Any enterprise cannot have a good prospect if it does not constantly implement the results of scientific and technical progress, since the quality of the products, the costs of its production and sale, the volume of sales and the amount of profit received depend on this.

Forecasting and planning of scientific and technical progress at an enterprise should be carried out on the basis of an established strategy for the development of the enterprise for the long term, taking into account real financial capabilities.

Control questions

1. What is the essence of scientific and technological progress and scientific revolution, the features of scientific and technological revolution at the present stage?

2. What are the main directions of scientific and technological progress, their essence and interrelation?

3. What are the priority areas of scientific and technical progress at the present stage, what is their content?

4. What is, in general terms, the economic and social essence of accelerating scientific and technical progress?

5. What is the methodology for forecasting and planning scientific and technical progress at an enterprise?

6. How does scientific and technical progress affect the main economic indicators of the enterprise?

Introduction

Scientific and technological progress in our time has become a factor of global importance. Scientific and technological progress largely determines the face of the world economy, world trade, and relationships between countries and regions. On a large scale, scientific discoveries and inventions materialize in the production apparatus, product output, and consumption of the population, constantly changing the life of mankind. Scientific and technological progress, the scientific and technical potential of any country is the main driver of the economies of countries. The issue of scientific and technical potential, the tendency to intensify development, self-development based on the accumulated industrial and scientific potential is acquiring decisive importance in the conditions of the new stage of scientific and technological revolution, in the conditions of structural restructuring of the world economy. As a result of scientific and technological progress, the development and improvement of all elements of the productive forces occurs: means and objects of labor, labor, technology, organization and production management. The direct result of scientific and technological progress is innovation or innovation. These are changes in technology and technology in which scientific knowledge is implemented. Only those teams that were able to solve specific scientific and technical problems, and that had mastered the complex process of introducing technology into production, were ready to solve such problems as the creation of high-tech products, the formation of a sales market, marketing, and expansion of production. Not a single country in the world today can solve the problems of income growth and consumption of the population without the cost-effective implementation of world achievements of scientific and technological progress. The scientific and technical potential of the country, along with natural and labor resources, forms the basis for the effectiveness of the national economy of any modern country.

The purpose of the work is to identify the directions of influence of scientific and technological progress on the development of the world economy.

The implementation of this goal involves solving the following tasks:

consider scientific and technological progress, its essence and problems of reproduction by the economic system;

analyze features modern stage scientific and technical progress;

consider the economic potential of countries, which involves the development and preservation of scientific and technical potential;

identifying problems of scientific and technological progress;

The object of study in this work is scientific and technological progress as the main factor in economic development.

The subject of the study is economic relations that arose in the process of scientific and technological progress.

The work used textbooks on the world economy, international economic relations by domestic and foreign authors, as well as Internet resources.

When preparing the course work, statistical and analytical methods were used.

The course work consists of two chapters, sequentially revealing the topic of the work, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. Scientific and technological progress as an important factor in the development of the world economy

.1 The concept and role of scientific and technological progress in modern world

Scientific and technological progress is the basis modern civilization. It is only about 300-350 years old. It was then that industrial civilization began to emerge. Scientific and technological progress is a twofold thing: it has both positive and negative features. Positive - improvement of comfort, negative - environmental (comfort leads to an ecological crisis) and cultural (due to the development of means of communication there is no need for direct contact). Scientific and technological progress is a continuous process of discovering new knowledge and applying it in social production, allowing for - new ways to connect and combine existing resources in order to increase the output of high-quality final products at the lowest cost.

Figure 1.1 - Scientific and technological progress as a factor in the formation of ME

NTP comes in two main forms:

A) evolutionary, which involves the gradual improvement of equipment and technology. Economic growth is driven by quantitative indicators;

B) revolutionary, manifested in a qualitative update of technology and a sharp jump in labor productivity.

Scientific and technological progress leads to significant savings in resources and reduces the role of natural materials in economic development, replacing them with synthetic raw materials. The combined use of modern machinery and technologies has led to the creation of flexible production systems that are widely used in manufacturing.

Scientific and technological progress is recognized throughout the world as the most important factor economic development. Increasingly, both in Western and domestic literature, it is associated with the concept of the innovation process. American economist James Bright noted STP as a one-of-a-kind process that combines science, technology, economics, entrepreneurship and management. It consists of obtaining innovations and extends from the origin of an idea to its commercial implementation, thus uniting the entire complex of relations: production, exchange, consumption.

In these circumstances, innovation is initially aimed at practical commercial results. The very idea that gives impetus has a mercantile content: it is no longer a result pure science , obtained by a university scientist in a free, unrestricted creative search. The practical orientation of an innovative idea is its attractive force for companies.

J.B. Sey defined innovation in the same way as entrepreneurship - that is, as a change in the return of resources. Or, as I would say modern economist in terms of supply and demand - as changes in the value and satisfaction received by the consumer from the resources he uses.

Today, purely pragmatic considerations have taken first place in the world. On the one hand, problems such as the rapid growth of the world's population, declining population growth and aging in industrialized regions, and exhaustion have become more acute than ever and have become global in nature. natural resources, environmental pollution. On the other hand, certain prerequisites have emerged for solving many global problems based on the achievements of scientific and technological progress and their accelerated implementation in the economy.

The concept of scientific and technical potential is closely related to the concept of scientific and technical progress. From the point of view of the development of the world economy, it seems appropriate to consider scientific and technical potential in the broad sense of this concept. It is in this sense that the scientific and technical potential of a state (industry, a separate sector) can be represented as a set of scientific and technical capabilities that characterize the level of development of a given state as a subject of the world economy and depend on the quantity and quality of resources that determine these capabilities, as well as on the availability of funds ideas and developments prepared for practical use (introduction into production). In the process of practical development of innovations, the materialization of scientific and technical potential occurs. Thus, scientific and technical potential, on the one hand, characterizes the state’s ability to apply objective achievements of scientific and technological progress, and on the other, characterizes the degree of direct participation in it. The result of the participation of any scientific research in the creation of socially useful use value is such scientific or technical information, which, embodied in various technical, technological or any other innovations, turns into one of the necessary factors for the development of production. However, it is a mistake to consider scientific and technical creativity and its connection with production only as a process of supplying the necessary for production activities information. Scientific research, especially in the field of natural and technical sciences, by its nature and dialectical purpose is increasingly becoming a direct component of the process of material production, and applied research and development can practically be considered an integral part of this process.

In the process of globalization, the importance of scientific and technological progress becomes decisive. On its basis, the world economy differentiated countries into two groups. The first group represents a special, highest, elite layer of the world economy. This is a kind of superstructure over the rest of the economic system. Its role is determined by the fact that 90% of the scientific and technical potential of the planet is concentrated here, the scientific, production and intellectual elite, the latest equipment and technologies are concentrated here.

The role of this superstructure is constantly growing, and scientific and technological progress is turning into an integration, connecting factor in the development of the world economy. It determines the functioning of various elements of the world economy: trade, migration of labor and capital, international division labor. Thus, flows of the most qualified labor force flow to highly developed countries. There is a “brain drain” from Africa, Asia, and Russia to the United States and Western Europe. Scientific and technological progress causes the movement of the most qualified labor force to the centers of human civilization. It is attracted by the concentration of the latest equipment and technology in the highest integration scientific and technical layer, high costs of science, R&D, more high salary and standard of living.

The formation of a scientific and technical superstructure, based on the development of scientific and technological progress, leads to the fact that it becomes a defining element of the world economy and acts as the “locomotive” of the world economy, its main driving force. Over the past 50 years, GDP (gross world product) has grown 5.9 times. It was the developed countries with the greatest scientific and technical potential that made a huge contribution to this process. These states account for more than 50% of gross domestic product. They consume 70% mineral resources. This is due to the enormous productivity and energy intensity of the latest technology, technologies, and equipment concentrated in these countries.

Significant role in the growth of the world gross product Newly industrialized countries are playing: their decisive contribution to the global GDP is explained by the fact that these countries are increasingly specializing in the field of the latest technologies, mastering knowledge-intensive and technically complex industries.

Scientific and technological progress not only ensures the creation of an ever-increasing MVP, but is also a determining factor in the development of the international division of labor. The production of new technology, equipment, new materials and finished products is concentrated in various regions and countries, which are becoming “growth points” of MRI.

Scientific and technological progress is the most important factor in the formation of a modern knowledge-intensive structure. Under its influence, the process of reducing the share is underway Agriculture. The labor force and other resources released as a result of the intensive growth of scientific and technical progress led to a proportional increase in the service sector, including trade, transport, and communications.

The role of scientific and technological progress is manifested in the fact that currently, on its basis, globalization and internationalization are strengthening. Previously, this process was constrained by the presence of the USSR and other socialist countries. This posed serious and often insurmountable obstacles to the development of planetary cooperation in the field of improving modern science and technology, and solving the pressing tasks and problems facing humanity.

1.2 Main and priority directions for the development of scientific and technological progress in the world economy

The main directions of scientific and technical progress are those areas of development of science and technology, the implementation of which in practice ensures maximum economic and social efficiency in the shortest possible time.

There are national (general) and individual (private) areas of scientific and technical progress. National - areas of scientific and technical progress that at this stage and in the future are a priority for a country or group of countries. Industry areas are areas of scientific and technical progress that are the most important and priority for individual sectors of the national economy and industry.

In scientific and technological progress, two main directions have been identified:

) traditional, ensuring satisfaction of the growing scale and variety of needs of man and society for new technology, goods and services;

) innovative, aimed at developing human potential, creating a comfortable living environment, as well as developing saving technologies.

The main characteristic and content of scientific and technological progress, ensuring the further progress of civilization, will undoubtedly be its increasingly pronounced humanization, the solution of universal human problems. Already now we can talk about a system of choosing priorities for scientific research and development of new technologies, management of the technosphere and ecosphere. Technology and social progress, science, technology and democratic transformations, technogenic culture and problems of education, computer science, artificial intelligence, socio-economic opportunities and the consequences of its use, science and technology as a civilizational phenomenon - this is not a complete list of problems discussed in the forecasting process directions of scientific and technological progress.

Priority directions for the development of science and technology - areas of science and technology that are of paramount importance for achieving current and future goals of socio-economic and scientific and technical development. They are formed under the influence, first of all, of national socio-economic priorities, political, environmental and other factors; characterized by intensive rates of development, higher concentration of labor, material and financial resources.

In the global economy, such knowledge-intensive industries as electric power, nuclear and chemical industries, computer production, mechanical engineering, precision instrument making, aviation industry, rocketry, shipbuilding, production of CNC machines, modules, and robots are becoming of great importance. We can say that currently the development of scientific and technical progress is embodied in the intensive process of forming a global knowledge-intensive structure that determines the long-term nature of structural changes world economy.

Scientific and technological progress determines the global, innovative nature of economic growth. This trend, being decisive in the global economy, is embodied in the development of experimental work on genetic engineering, the use of radioactivity in biotechnology; research on the genesis and prevention of cancer; application of superconductivity in telecommunication systems, etc. This is becoming the dominant trend in the development of science and technology. At the beginning of the 21st century. The most important areas of science and scientific and technological progress are:

) human sciences (medicine, the creation of a new generation of diagnostic and therapeutic equipment, the search for treatments against AIDS, organ cloning, the study of the human gene, gerontology, psychology, demography, sociology);

) computer and information technologies (creation, processing, storage and transmission of information, computerization of production processes, use of computer technologies in science, education, healthcare, management, trade, financial sector, everyday life, convergence of computer and telecommunication technologies);

) creation of new materials (development of new ultra-light, super-hard and superconducting materials, as well as materials that are immune to aggressive environments, replacing natural substances with artificial ones);

) alternative energy sources (development of thermonuclear energy for peaceful purposes, creation of solar, wind, tidal, geothermal installations, high power);

) biotechnology (genetic engineering, biometallurgy, bioinformatics, biocybernetics, creation of artificial intelligence, production of synthetic products);

) ecology - the creation of environmentally friendly and waste-free technologies, new means of environmental protection, comprehensive processing of raw materials using waste-free technology, recycling of industrial and household waste.

) information technology is one of the main, decisive factors that determine the development of technology and resources in general. The use of electronic computers and personal computers has led to a radical transformation of relations and technological foundations activities in the economic sphere.

Thus, in modern conditions, a country’s position in the world economy is largely determined by its scientific and technical achievements, and to a lesser extent by natural resources and capital.

There are other advanced production technologies, but all of them are characterized by one very important circumstance - higher productivity and efficiency.

Some researchers note the emergence of a new trend in the development of scientific and technological progress: in the context of globalization, the priorities of scientific and technological progress are shifting from the automation of production processes to the creation of resource-saving and life-sustaining technologies. In this regard, in last years forecasting scientific and technological progress is closely linked to assessing its consequences for social sphere.

Let me summarize the above: the main directions of scientific and technological progress are comprehensive mechanization and automation,

chemicalization, electrification of production. They are all interconnected and interdependent.

In many countries of the world, the development of scientific and technical potential is becoming one of the most active elements of the reproduction process. In industrialized and newly industrialized countries, knowledge-intensive industries are becoming a priority direction of economic development.

Table 1.1 shows the share of research and development expenditures in the world's gross product

Table 1.1

1980 1990 1991 2005-2007 2008 1,852,551,82,31,7

The extent to which a country pays attention to the development of scientific and technical potential can be judged by such indicators as the size of absolute expenditures on research and development work and their share in GDP.

The most funds for the development of scientific and technical potential in the early 90s were spent in the USA and Japan, Germany, France, and Great Britain. The total expenditures on R&D in these countries were greater than the total expenditures for similar purposes in all other countries in the world.

Countriesmillions dollars country million USD1USD1584528Sweden74152Japan1098259Netherlands55543Germany4910310Switzerland50704France3110211Spain48935Great Britain2245412Australia39746Italy1691617…China26007Canada8517…24Russia90 1

In terms of the share of expenditures on research and development work, the leaders are mainly industrialized countries, which spend an average of 2-3% of their gross domestic product on research and development activities.

The volume of the global market for science-intensive products today is $2 trillion. 300 billion. Of this amount, 39% are products of the USA, 30 - of Japan, 16% - of Germany. Russia's share is only 0.3%.

2. Analysis of the impact of scientific and technological progress on the economic growth in the global economy

.1 Analysis and assessment of the effectiveness of scientific and technological progress in the world economy

The economic efficiency of scientific and technological progress is directly related to the problem comprehensive assessment capital investments, since scientific and technological progress activities are considered as investment objects.

In economic calculations, a distinction is made between the concepts of economic effect and economic efficiency. The effect of scientific and technological progress is understood as the planned or obtained result of scientific, technical and innovative activities. Economic is an effect (result) that leads to saving labor, material or natural resources, or allows increasing the production of means of production, consumer goods and services, in in value terms. Thus, on the scale of the national economy, the effect is an increase in national income in value form; at the level of industries and production, the effect is considered to be either net production or part of it - profit. The economic efficiency of scientific and technological progress is understood as the ratio of the economic effect obtained from the introduction of scientific and technical achievements to the total costs of their implementation, i.e. efficiency is a relative value characterizing the effectiveness of costs.

The economic efficiency of scientific and technological progress cannot be expressed by any one universal indicator, since to determine the economic effect it is necessary to present all results and costs in monetary terms, and this is not always possible if the activities of scientific and technological progress are aimed at solving global economic problems. and environmental problems, development of the social sphere, etc. Therefore, for an objective assessment it is necessary to use a fairly extensive system of indicators.

When calculating and analyzing economic efficiency, it is necessary to take into account:

comparability of options;

right choice standard for comparison;

comparability of technical economic indicators;

bringing the compared options to an identical effect;

complexity of the analysis;

time factor;

scientific validity, objectivity and legality of findings, conclusions and recommendations.

The economic efficiency of scientific and technological progress is characterized by a system of economic indicators that reflect the ratio of costs and results and allow one to judge the economic attractiveness of the industry for investors and the economic advantages of some industries over others.

Depending on the level of assessment, the volume of effects and costs taken into account, as well as the purpose of the assessment, several types of effectiveness are distinguished: general and specific.

A general indicator of the effectiveness of scientific activity is considered to be the value obtained as the ratio of the actual annual economic effect from the introduction of scientific developments in the national economy to the actual costs incurred for their implementation.

Particular indicators of the effectiveness of the introduction of new equipment and new technologies are presented by quantitative and qualitative indicators. Quantitative indicators include:

Number of implemented CNC machines; machining centers, industrial robots; computer equipment; automatic and semi-automatic lines; conveyor lines.

Introduction of new, more promising technologies (quantity, power and volume of products produced using new technology).

Renewal rate of production equipment (by quantity and cost).

Equipment replacement rate.

Average age of equipment.

Commissioning of new capacities.

Cost per unit of power.

Cost of one workplace.

The number of new types of products created (new equipment, devices, new materials, medications, etc.).

Number of new jobs created.

Qualitative indicators.

The number of relatively displaced workers as a result of the introduction of new equipment and new technologies.

Increased labor productivity as a result of the introduction of new equipment and new technology.

Savings from cost reduction individual species products after the introduction of new technology

Reducing material intensity, including energy intensity (fuel intensity, electrical capacity, heat capacity), and salary intensity as a result of innovation activities.

Increasing output finished products from raw materials due to its deeper processing.

Dynamics of capital productivity and capital intensity, capital, energy and electrical equipment of labor.

World practice shows that it is business structures that play a key role in the development and implementation of innovations. The share of corporate expenditures on research and development in national research expenditures exceeds 65%, and the average for the countries of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is close to 70%

Figure 2.1 - Sources of financing for research and development work in Russia and abroad, % of the total costs for them

Majority large companies carry out not only applied, but also fundamental research. Thus, in the United States, private investment accounts for more than 25% of the total cost of basic research. In Japan, corporate sector costs reach almost 38% of total spending on basic research, and in South Korea - about 45%.

In Russia, the opposite picture is observed: funding for research and development from the corporate sector amounts to just over 20% of total investment in R&D.

Large Russian businesses are significantly inferior to large foreign corporations, both in absolute and relative R&D expenses. Thus, Russia is represented by only three participants in the ranking of the 1,400 largest companies in the world by absolute R&D expenditure, which is compiled annually by the EU Joint Research Center. They are OJSC Gazprom (83rd position), AvtoVAZ (620th position) and LUKoil (632nd position). For comparison: in the FortuneGlobal 500 ranking, among the 500 companies in the world by revenue, there are twice as many Russian companies - 6, and among the 1,400 leading global companies by revenue there are several dozen Russian companies.

The total volume of expenditures of the Russian corporate sector on research and development work is more than 2 times less than that of Volkswagen, the largest corporation in Europe in terms of research and development expenditures (2.2 billion versus 5.79 billion euros).

On average, foreign companies spend 2 to 3% of annual income on R&D. For leaders, these indicators are significantly higher. According to the EU Joint Research Centre, the average R&D expenditure intensity (ratio of R&D expenditure to revenue) of the world's 1,400 largest R&D invested companies in 2009 was 3.5%.

Despite the reduction in R&D funding due to the crisis, the intensity of spending on innovation by the largest corporations, on the contrary, has increased. According to the consulting company Booz, the costs of the world's 1,000 largest corporations on R&D in 2010 compared to 2009 decreased by 3.5%, but the average cost intensity increased from 3.46 to 3.75%. In other words, in the context of a falling market and declining sales, the world's largest corporations were not the first to reduce costs for their own research and development (for example, capital investments of the corporations in question decreased in 2010 by 17.1%, and administrative expenses by 5.4% ), and the share of R&D costs in total corporate costs was increased. On the contrary, accelerating and expanding the R&D front is considered by world business leaders as a priority task to ensure sustainable post-crisis development of companies.

According to a study by the Expert RA rating agency, before the crisis, the volume of R&D expenses in the revenue of the largest Russian companies from the Expert-400 rating was about 0.5%, which is 4-6 times lower than that of foreign companies. Over two years, in 2009, this figure fell by more than half - to 0.2% total income companies.

The leaders in terms of investment in R&D in Russia are machine-building companies, but even their ratio of R&D costs to revenue does not exceed 2%. In less technological sectors the gap is even greater.

For example, the ratio of OAO Severstal's expenses for research and development work to the company's revenue in 2009 was 0.06%. At the same time, the corresponding figure for the metallurgical corporation ArcelorMittal (Luxembourg) was 0.6%, that is, 10 times more; NipponSteel (Japan) - 1%; SumitomoMetalIndustries (Japan) - 1.2%; POSCO (South Korea) - 1.3%; KobeSteel (Japan) - 1.4%; OneSteel (Australia) - 2.5%.

It is estimated that corporate R&D spending began to recover rapidly in 2010, but innovation activity big business will return to the pre-crisis level - this will only mean maintaining the gap with the technologically advanced companies of the world.

2.2 Problems of scientific and technological progress and proposals for their solution

The key problem is, first of all, the low demand for innovation in Russian economy, as well as its ineffective structure - an excessive bias towards the purchase of ready-made equipment abroad to the detriment of the introduction of its own new developments. Russia's balance sheet in technology trade has been steadily declining from positive in 2000 ($20 million) and in 2009 amounted to minus $1.008 billion. Around the same time, the leading countries in the field of innovation achieved a significant increase in their technological balance surplus (USA by 1.5 times, Great Britain by 1.9 times, Japan by 2.5 times). In general, it could not have been otherwise, taking into account the difference in the number of innovatively active companies. In 2009, the development and implementation of technological innovations was carried out by 9.4% of the total number of Russian industrial companies. For comparison: in Germany their share was 69.7%, in Ireland - 56.7%, in Belgium - 59.6%, in Estonia - 55.1%, in the Czech Republic - 36.6%. Unfortunately, in Russia not only the share of innovatively active enterprises is low, but also the intensity of spending on technological innovation, which is 1.9% (the same figure in Sweden is 5.5%, in Germany - 4.7%).

Figure 2.2 shows the performance chart.

Another important problem is the imitative nature of the Russian innovation system, focused on borrowing ready-made technologies rather than creating its own breakthrough innovations. Among OECD countries, Russia has the dubious honor of occupying last place in the share of leading innovative companies - among Russian innovatively active enterprises there are only 16% of them, compared to 35% in Japan and Germany, 41-43% in Belgium, France, Austria, 51- 55% in Denmark and Finland. Note that the most numerous type of passive technological borrowing in Russia (34.3%) is on the verge of extinction in the economically developed countries of Europe (about 5-8%). At the same time, in addition to the quantitative lag of Russian companies in terms of the level of innovation activity, there are also significant structural problems in organizing innovation management at the firm level. According to the indicator “company's ability to borrow and adapt technologies”, calculated by the World Economic Forum, Russia in 2009 was in 41st place out of 133 - at the level of countries such as Cyprus, Costa Rica, and the United Arab Emirates.

Figure 2.2 - Share of Russian companies that carried out technological innovations

The problem of the low level of innovation activity in Russia is further aggravated by the low return on implementation of technological innovations. The growth in the volume of innovative products (in 1995-2009 by 34%) does not correspond at all to the rate of increase in costs for technological innovation (three times over the same period). As a result, if in 1995 there were 5.5 rubles of innovative products per ruble of innovation costs, then in 2009 this figure dropped to 2.4 rubles.

Figure 2.3 - Share of innovative goods, works, services in the total volume of goods shipped, works performed, services of organizations

As one of important factors it is necessary to note the general low level costs for research and development work. Expenditures on them in 2008 in Russia are estimated at 1.04% of GDP versus 1.43% of GDP in China and 2.3% in OECD countries, 2.77% of GDP in the USA, 3.44% of GDP in Japan.

Figure 2.4 shows this quite clearly.

Figure 2.4 - Scale of R&D expenditures by country, % of GDP

Scientific and technological progress shows a complex and contradictory influence on global processes in modern conditions. On the one hand, scientific and technological development and scientific and technological progress are directly related to socio-economic progress. There is no doubt that their result was rapid economic growth based on increased social productivity and conservation of natural resources, increased internationalization of the world economy and the interdependence of the countries of the world. On the other hand, contradictions, including economic ones, are growing and deepening.

Among them is the growth of unsatisfied demand, as scientific and technological development stimulates new high-speed needs; negative consequences associated with unpredictable results of the introduction of certain achievements into production (pollution, accidents, catastrophes); the adverse effects of the intensification of production and information on the human body; underestimation of the importance of the human factor; growth of moral and ethical problems (manipulation of heredity, computer crimes, total information control, etc.). The problem has worsened feedback between scientific and technological progress and its already realized possibilities. A set of questions arose about the so-called technical safety application of created innovations.

Important problems on a global scale have become the increasing distance from sources of raw materials and energy, the depletion of natural sources of raw materials, both in quantitative terms and in terms of their physical properties. In addition, the resource intensity of production and lifestyle (as a result of scientific and technological progress) increases the natural limitations of our environment. This style can be practiced only at the expense of other people living on Earth, and at the expense of descendants.

One of the important consequences for the whole world may be the loss of responsibility for individual results of scientific and technological progress. This is expressed, on the one hand, in the contradiction between the human instinct for self-preservation and the growth of needs and profit, on the other.

Finally, another important aspect of scientific and technological progress is its cyclical, uneven nature, which increases socio-economic problems in different countries and making them common. There are periods when the general deterioration economic conditions reproduction (for example, rising prices for energy resources) slows down or postpones the receipt of the economic effect of scientific and technological development, switches it to the task of compensating for emerging structural limitations, thereby exacerbating social problems. The unevenness of economic development is increasing. International competition is intensifying, which leads to aggravation of foreign economic contradictions. Its consequences were the growth of protectionism, trade and currency wars in relations between developed countries.

Scientific and technological development rationally changes the existing nature of the international division of labor. Thus, new forms of automation deprive developing countries advantages associated with the availability of cheap labor. The growing export of scientific and technical information and scientific and technical services is used by developed countries as new tool"technological neocolonialism". It is enhanced by the activities of TNCs and their foreign branches.

An important aspect global problems associated with scientific and technological development is the problem of education. However, without the colossal changes that have occurred in the field of education, neither the scientific and technological revolution, nor the enormous achievements in the development of the world economy, nor the democratic processes in which an increasing number of countries and peoples of the world are involved would be possible. In our time, education has become one of the most important aspects of human activity. Today it covers literally the entire society, and its costs are constantly increasing.

scientific technical progress funding

Table 2.2 - Expenditures per capita in the field of education

USDWorld as a whole188Africa15Asia58Arab states134North America1257Latin America78Europe451 The developed countries 704Developing countries29

The problem for underdeveloped countries remains “brain drain”, when the most qualified personnel seek to find work abroad. The reason is that personnel training does not always correspond to the real possibilities of their use in specific socio-economic conditions. Since education is connected with a certain socio-cultural sphere, its problems enter into a complex interaction with universal human problems, such as economic backwardness, population growth, safety of residence, etc. In addition, education itself requires constant improvement and reform, i.e., firstly, improving its quality, which has deteriorated due to its rapid development; secondly, solving problems of its effectiveness, which depends on specific economic conditions; thirdly, satisfying the need for normative knowledge, which is associated with the continuous education of adults, and therefore the development of the concept of lifelong education that would accompany a person throughout his life. That is why all over the world, especially in developed countries, the volume of services to improve the qualifications and level of education of adults is rapidly growing.

Education influences not only the assimilation of advanced technologies and making effective decisions, but also the way of life, forms a system of value orientations, as the history and experience of a number of countries show, ignoring these circumstances leads to a sharp decrease in the effectiveness of educational policy and even to the destabilization of society.

Problems of scientific and technological progress are among the global problems of humanity, so their solution can be expressed in a generalized form.

Global problems of human development are not isolated from each other, but act in unity and interconnection, which requires radically new conceptual approaches to solving them. There are a number of obstacles to solving global problems. Measures taken to solve them are often blocked by the economic and political arms race, regional, political and military conflicts. Globalization in some cases is slowed down by the lack of resources for planned programs. Certain global problems are generated by contradictions contained in the socio-economic conditions of life of the peoples of the world.

The necessary prerequisites and possibilities for a truly humanistic resolution of global contradictions are created by the world community. Global problems must be resolved through the development of cooperation between all states that form the world economic system.

Life does not stand still, society develops, people develop, the economy and production develop. Any person understands that currently the development of science and technology is taking place by leaps and bounds. Modern scientific and technological progress is aimed at strengthening the role of environmental protection measures, biocompatible technologies that do not harm the environment, closed technologies that do not produce waste, and energy-saving technologies. Production is becoming more and more knowledge-intensive. Therefore, the role of statistics of scientific and technological progress is increasing, which finds reserves for accelerating these processes and helps the speedy introduction of new promising technologies into production.

conclusions

Scientific and technological progress covers all aspects of human activity and makes human work easier. However, scientific and technological progress also affects the resource potential of both the world economy and each country in particular. Just as the resources of the world economy are numerous, so is the influence of scientific and technological progress on each of them.

The resource effect of scientific and technological progress is associated with its ability to replace scarce resources of the national economy, release them for expanded production, and also bring previously unused resources into circulation. Its indicators are the release of labor, savings and replacement of scarce materials and raw materials, as well as the involvement of new resources in the national economic circulation, and the complexity of the use of raw materials. The environmental effect of the scientific and technological process is closely related to resources - changes in the state of the environment. The social effect of the scientific and technical process is to create more favorable conditions for the use of the creative powers of workers, for the comprehensive development of the individual. This is manifested in improving working conditions and labor protection, reducing heavy physical labor, increasing free time, and increasing the material and cultural standard of living of workers.

Thus, the formation of scientific and technological progress within the framework of the world economy has become a factor changing the nature of the existing system of international economic relations. Under its influence, the nature of property relations and the labor process changes, competition is overcome, the consolidation of scientific and technical potential is formed, MRI and cooperation relations between states are developed. The regulatory role of the state, which determines the main directions of development of scientific and technical progress and the formation of a knowledge-intensive structure, is increasingly increasing.

The role of scientific and technological progress is determined not only by its present, but also by its future. It should be expected that the development of this process will continue to shape the internationalization of the world economy. On its basis, the formation of new interstate integration associations will be carried out, there will be further development international division of labor and world trade in finished products produced on the basis of " high technology" Under these conditions, new forms of transport will develop: monorails, supersonic aircraft, hydrogen fuel cars. The creation of transnational railway systems, as well as transoceanic steamship transport, will continue. The development of biocompatible and superconducting materials, the development of satellite communications, and the introduction of photonic technologies are underway. These processes are making the world economy more and more unified, integrated, whole. State borders are becoming transparent, because they impede the deepening of integration processes, and, consequently, the development of the world economy as a whole.

Without government support, it is impossible to develop and maintain scientific, technical and innovative potential. State policy is a set of forms, methods, directions of influence of the state on production in order to produce new types of products and technologies, as well as the expansion of sales markets for domestic goods on this basis.

IN post-industrial society R&D is becoming a kind of branch of the economy that plays a significant role. The most advanced are such knowledge-intensive and super-knowledge-intensive industries as the creation of computer software, biotechnological production, the creation of composite materials with specified properties, fibroplastics, analytical instruments and machines. The moral depreciation of traditional products significantly outpaces their physical depreciation, at the same time market price research results, various industrial know-how, advanced industrial products themselves are not subject to fall. The constant reproduction of scientific research results, thoughtful trade in them and the export of unique high-tech products can enrich any country in the world.

Bibliography

1.Spiridonov I.A. World economy: textbook allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.:INFRA-M, 2008. - 272 p.

.Khlypalov V.M. World Economy, Krasnodar: Amethyst and K LLC, 2012. - 232 p.

.Lomakin V.K. World Economy - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2012. - 671 p.

.Makeeva T. Macroeconomics, - M.: New Time, 2010. 468 p.

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History of scientific and technological progress

Scientific and technological revolution, world economic leaders of technical progress

Section 1. The essence of scientific and technological progress, scientific and technological revolution.

Section 2. World economic leaders.

Scientific and technical progress - this is the interconnected progressive development of science and technology, determined by the needs of material production, growth and complexity public needs.

The essence of scientific and technological progress, scientific and technological revolution

Scientific and technological progress is inextricably linked with the emergence and development of large-scale machine production, which is based on the increasingly widespread use of scientific and technical achievements. It makes it possible to put powerful natural forces and resources at the service of man, to transform production into a technological process of conscious application of data from natural and other sciences.

With the strengthening of the relationship between large-scale machine production and science and technology at the end of the 19th century. XX century Special types of scientific research aimed at translating scientific ideas into technical means and new technology are rapidly expanding: applied research, development and production research. As a result, science is increasingly turning into a direct productive force, transforming an increasing number of aspects and elements of material production.

Scientific and technological progress has two main forms:

evolutionary and revolutionary, meaning a relatively slow and partial improvement of the traditional scientific and technical foundations of production.

These forms determine each other: the quantitative accumulation of relatively small changes in science and technology ultimately leads to fundamental qualitative transformations in this area, and after the transition to a fundamentally new technique and technology, revolutionary changes gradually outgrow evolutionary ones.

Depending on the prevailing social system, scientific and technological progress has different socio-economic consequences. Under capitalism, the private appropriation of means, production and the results of scientific research leads to the fact that scientific and technological progress develops mainly in the interests of the bourgeoisie and is used to increase the exploitation of the proletariat, for militaristic and misanthropic purposes.

Under socialism, scientific and technological progress is put at the service of the entire society, and its achievements are used to more successfully solve the economic and social problems of communist construction, the formation of material and spiritual prerequisites for the comprehensive development of the individual. During the period of developed socialism, the most important goal economic strategy The CPSU is accelerating scientific and technological progress as a decisive condition for increasing the efficiency of social production and improving product quality.

The technical policy developed by the 25th Congress of the CPSU ensures the coordination of all areas of development of science and technology, the development of fundamental scientific research, as well as the acceleration and wider implementation of their results in the national economy.

Based on the implementation of a unified technical policy in all sectors of the national economy, it is planned to accelerate the technical re-equipment of production, widely introduce progressive equipment and technology that ensures increased labor productivity and product quality, saving material resources, improving working conditions, environmental protection and rational use of natural resources. The task has been set - to carry out the transition from the creation and implementation of individual machines and technological processes to the development, production and mass use of highly efficient machine systems;

equipment, instruments and technological processes that ensure mechanization and automation of all production processes, and especially auxiliary, transport and warehouse operations; make wider use of reconfigurable technical means that allow you to quickly master the production of new products.

Along with the improvement of already mastered technological processes, groundwork will be created for fundamentally new equipment and technology.

Scientific and technological revolution is a radical transformation in the system of scientific knowledge and technology, occurring in inextricable connection with the historical process of development of human society.

The Industrial Revolution of the 18th-19th centuries, during which handicraft technology was replaced by large-scale machine production and capitalism was established, was based on scientific revolution XVI-XVII centuries

The modern scientific and technological revolution, leading to the replacement of machine production with automated production, is based on discoveries in science of the late 19th - first half of the 20th centuries. The latest achievements of science and technology bring with them a revolution in the productive forces of society and create enormous opportunities for production growth. Discoveries in the field of atomic and molecular structure of matter laid the foundation for the creation of new materials;

advances in chemistry have made it possible to create substances with predetermined properties;

the study of electrical phenomena in solids and gases served as the basis for the emergence of electronics;

research into the structure of the atomic nucleus opened the way to the practical use of atomic energy;

Thanks to the development of mathematics, means of automation of production and management were created.

All this indicates the creation of a new system of knowledge about nature, a radical transformation of technology and production technology, and an undermining of the dependence of production development on the limitations imposed by human physiological capabilities and natural conditions.

The opportunities for production growth created by scientific and technological revolution are in blatant contradiction with the production relations of capitalism, which subordinate the scientific and technological revolution to an increase in monopoly profits and the strengthening of monopoly dominance (see Capitalist monopolies). Capitalism cannot set before science and technology social tasks that correspond to their level and nature, and gives them a one-sided, ugly character. The use of technology in capitalist countries leads to such social consequences as increased unemployment, increased intensification of labor, and an increasing concentration of wealth in the hands of financial magnates. The social system that opens up space for the development of scientific and technological revolution in the interests of all workers is socialism.

In the USSR, the implementation of the scientific and technological revolution is inextricably linked with the construction of the material and technical base of communism.

Technical development and the improvement of production is carried out in the direction of completing the comprehensive mechanization of production, automating processes that are technically and economically prepared for this, developing a system of automatic machines and creating the prerequisites for the transition to complex automation. At the same time, the development of tools is inextricably linked with changes in production technology, the use of new energy sources, raw materials and supplies. Scientific and technological revolution has an impact on all aspects of material production.

The revolution in the productive forces determines a qualitatively new level of society's activities in production management, higher requirements for personnel, and the quality of work of each worker. The opportunities opened up by the latest achievements of science and technology are realized in the growth of labor productivity, on the basis of which prosperity is achieved, and then an abundance of consumer goods.

The progress of technology, primarily the use of automatic machines, is associated with a change in the content of labor, the elimination of unskilled and heavy manual labor, an increase in the level of professional training and general culture of workers, and the transfer of agricultural production to an industrial basis.

In the future, by ensuring complete well-being for everyone, society will overcome the still significant differences between city and countryside under socialism, the significant differences between mental and physical labor, and will create conditions for the comprehensive physical and spiritual development of the individual.

Thus, the organic combination of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution with the advantages of the socialist economic system means the development in the direction of communism of all aspects of social life.

The scientific and technological revolution is the main arena of economic competition between socialism and capitalism. At the same time, this is an arena for intense ideological struggle.

Bourgeois scientists approach revealing the essence of scientific and technological revolution primarily from the natural-technical side.

For the purpose of apologetics of capitalism, they consider the changes occurring in science and technology, outside of social relations, in a “social vacuum.”

All social phenomena are reduced to processes occurring in the sphere of “pure” science and technology, they write about the “cybernetic revolution”, which supposedly leads to the “transformation of capitalism”, to its transformation into a “society of general abundance” devoid of antagonistic contradictions.

In reality, the scientific and technological revolution does not change the exploitative essence of capitalism, but further aggravates and deepens the social contradictions of bourgeois society, the gap between the wealth of the small elite and the poverty of the masses. Capitalist countries are now as far from the mythical “abundance for all” and “general prosperity” as they were before the scientific and technological revolution began.

Potential development opportunities and production efficiency are determined, first of all, by scientific and technological progress, its pace and socio-economic results.

The more purposefully and effectively the latest achievements of science and technology, which are the primary source of development of productive forces, are used, the more successfully the priority tasks of society are solved.

Scientific and technological progress (STP) in a literal sense means a continuous interdependent process of development of science and technology, and in a broader sense - a constant process of creating new and improving existing technologies.

STP can also be interpreted as a process of accumulation and practical implementation of new scientific and technical knowledge, an integral cyclical system of “science-technology-production”, covering the following areas:

fundamental theoretical research;

applied research work;

experimental design developments;

mastering technical innovations;

increasing the production of new equipment to the required volume, its use (operation) for a certain time;

technical, economic, environmental and social aging of products, their constant replacement with new, more efficient models.

The scientific and technological revolution (STR) reflects a radical qualitative transformation of conditioned development based on scientific discoveries (inventions) that have a revolutionary impact on the change of tools and objects of labor, production management technologies, the nature of labor activity of people.

General priority areas of NTP. Scientific and technological progress, always carried out in its interconnected evolutionary and revolutionary forms, is a determining factor in the development of productive forces and the steady increase in production efficiency. It directly influences, first of all, the formation and maintenance high level technical and technological base of production, ensuring a steady increase in the productivity of social labor. Based on the essence, content and patterns of modern development of science and technology, we can identify the general directions of scientific and technical progress characteristic of most sectors of the national economy, and for each of them priorities, at least for the near future.

In the conditions of modern revolutionary transformations of the technical basis of production, the degree of its perfection and level economic potential is generally determined by the progressiveness of the technologies used - methods of obtaining and converting materials, energy, information, and manufacturing products. Technology becomes the final link and form of materialization basic research, a means of direct influence of science on the sphere of production. If earlier it was considered a supporting subsystem of production, now it has acquired independent significance, turning into an avant-garde direction of scientific and technical progress.

Modern technologies have certain development and application trends. The main ones are:

firstly, the transition to few-stage processes by combining in one technological unit several operations that were previously performed separately;

secondly, ensuring in new technological systems little or waste-free production;

thirdly, increasing the level of integrated mechanization of processes based on the use of machine systems and technological lines;

fourthly, the use of microelectronics in new technological processes, which allows, simultaneously with an increase in the level of automation of processes, to achieve greater dynamic flexibility of production.

Technological methods increasingly determine the specific form and function of means and objects of labor, and thereby initiate the emergence of new areas of scientific and technical progress, displace technically and economically obsolete tools from production, and give rise to new types of machines and equipment, automation equipment. Now fundamentally new types of equipment are being developed and manufactured “for new technologies,” and not vice versa, as was the case before.

It has been proven that the technical level and quality of modern machines (equipment) directly depend on the progressive characteristics of the structural and other auxiliary materials used for their production. This implies the enormous role of the creation and widespread use of new materials - one of the most important areas of scientific and technological progress.

In the field of objects of labor, the following trends in scientific and technical progress can be identified:

significant improvement in the quality characteristics of materials of mineral origin, stabilization and even reduction in the specific volumes of their consumption;

intensive transition to the use of light, strong and corrosion-resistant non-ferrous metals (alloys) in larger quantities, made possible due to the emergence of fundamentally new technologies that have significantly reduced the cost of their production;

a noticeable expansion of the range and accelerated increase in production volumes of artificial materials with predetermined properties, including unique ones.

Modern production processes are subject to such requirements as achieving maximum continuity, safety, flexibility and productivity, which can only be realized with an appropriate level of mechanization and automation - an integrated and final direction of scientific and technical progress. Mechanization and automation of production, reflecting different degrees of replacement of manual labor with machine labor, in its development sequentially, parallelly or parallel-sequentially passes from a lower (partial) to a higher (complex) form.

In conditions of intensification of production, the urgent need to repeatedly increase labor productivity and radically improve its social content, and fundamentally improve the quality of manufactured products, automation of production processes is becoming a strategic direction of scientific and technical progress for enterprises in most sectors of the national economy. The priority task is to ensure comprehensive automation, since the introduction of individual automatic machines and units does not provide the desired economic effect due to the remaining significant amount of manual labor. A new and quite promising integrated direction is associated with the creation and implementation of flexible automated production. The accelerated development of such industries (primarily in mechanical engineering and some other industries) is due to the objective need to ensure highly efficient use of expensive automatic equipment and sufficient mobility of production with constant updating of the product range.

World economic leaders

Developed countries of the world, countries of the “golden billion”. They are seriously preparing to enter the post-industrial world. Thus, the states of Western Europe joined forces within the framework of a pan-European program. Industrial developments are underway in the following areas information technologies. Global mobile telephone communications(Germany, 2000-2007) - providing universal teleaccess to any subscribers and information and analytical resources of the global network from a personal handset (such as a cell phone) or a special mobile terminal.

Teleconferencing systems (France, Germany, 2000-2005) an opportunity for subscribers remote from each other to quickly organize a temporary corporate network with audio-video access.

Three-dimensional television (Japan, 2000-2010).

Full use of electronic media in Everyday life(France, 2002-2004).

Creation of virtual reality networks (Germany, France, Japan, 2004-2009) - personal access to databases and a system for synthesizing multi-sensory (multimedia) display of an artificial image of the environment or scenarios for the development of hypothetical events.

Contactless personal identification systems (Japan, 2002-2004).

In the USA in 1997-1999. Experts from George Washington University prepared a long-term forecast for the development of national science and technology for the period until 2030 based on repeated surveys of a large number of heads of research institutions.

It has been developed in depth by the State Department, the Justice Department, large manufacturing companies, and banking sector.

The program provides prompt global high-speed network access to any national and major global information resources.

Organizational, legal and financial fundamentals its implementation, measures are envisaged for the rapid development of powerful computing and analytical centers.

Since 1996, the implementation of the program began, a multi-million dollar budget was allocated and corporate investment funds were formed. Analysts note the very rapid growth of the information technology industry, exceeding government plans.

The maximum surge in “breakthrough” information technologies is predicted from 2003 to 2005. The period of rapid growth will take 30-40 years.

In the field of computer systems, by 2005 there will be personal computers compatible with cable networks television. This will accelerate the development of interactive (partially programmed) television and will lead to the creation of home, industrial and scientific-educational collections of television recordings.

The development of such local funds and large image databases will be ensured by the creation in 2006 of a new generation of digital memory systems and storage of practically unlimited amounts of information.

At the turn of 2008, the creation and widespread distribution of pocket computers and the growth in the use of computers with parallel information processing are expected. By 2004, the commercial introduction of optical computers is possible, and by 2017, the beginning of serial production of biocomputers built into living organisms.

In the field of telecommunications, by 2006 it is predicted that 80% of communication systems will switch to digital standards, there will be a significant leap in the development of microcellular personal telephony - PC5, which will account for up to 10% of the world market mobile communications. This will ensure the universal possibility of receiving and transmitting information of any format and volume.

In area information services by 2004, teleconferencing systems will be introduced (via voice and video communications using computer devices and fast digital networks for transmitting audio-video information between several subscribers in real time). By 2009, the capabilities of electronic banking payments will significantly expand, and by 2018, the volume of trading operations carried out through information networks.

Fundamentally new approach Lytro employees contributed to the photo shoot. They presented a camera that saves not an image, but light rays.

In traditional cameras, a matrix (film) is used to create a picture, on which the light flux leaves a trace, which is then converted into a flat image. The Lytro camera uses a field light sensor instead of a matrix. It does not save an image, but rather captures the color, intensity and direction vector of light rays.

This approach allows you to select the subject of focus after shooting, and the special image format Lytro LFP (Light Field Picture) allows you to change the focus in the image as much as you like.

Writing

Humanity has been looking for ways to transmit information since time immemorial. Primitive people exchanged information using branches folded in a certain way, arrows, smoke from fires, etc. However, a breakthrough in development occurred with the advent of the first forms of writing around 4 thousand years BC.

Typography

Printing was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century. Thanks to him, the world's first printed book, the Bible, appeared in Germany. Gutenberg's invention turned the Renaissance green.

It was this material, or rather, a group of materials with common physical properties, that made a real revolution in construction. The ancient builders had to go to great lengths to ensure the strength of their buildings. Thus, the Chinese used glutinous rice porridge with the addition of slaked lime to hold together the stone blocks of the Great Wall.

Only in the 19th century did builders learn to prepare cement. In Russia, this happened in 1822 thanks to Yegor Cheliev, who obtained a binding material from a mixture of lime and clay. Two years later, the Englishman D. Aspind received a patent for the invention of cement. It was decided to name the material Portland cement in honor of the city where they mined stone similar to cement in color and strength.

Microscope

The first microscope with two lenses was invented by the Dutch optician Z. Jansen in 1590. However, the first microorganisms were seen by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek using a microscope he made himself. As a merchant, he independently mastered the craft of a grinder and built a microscope with a carefully ground lens that increased the size of microbes 300 times. Legend has it that since van Leeuwenhoek examined a drop of water through a microscope, he began to drink only tea and wine.

Electricity

Until recently, people on the planet slept up to 10 hours a day, but with the advent of electricity, humanity began to spend less and less time in bed. Thomas Alva Edison, who created the first electric light bulb, is considered to be the culprit of the electrical “revolution”. However, 6 years before him, in 1873, our compatriot Alexander Lodygin patented his incandescent lamp - the first scientist who thought of using tungsten filaments in lamps.

The world's first telephone, which was immediately dubbed the miracle of miracles, was created by the famous Boston inventor Bell Alexander Gray. On March 10, 1876, the scientist called his assistant at the receiving station, and he clearly heard on the phone: “Mr. Watson, please come here, I need to talk to you.” Bell rushed to patent his invention, and a few months later the telephone was in almost a thousand homes.

Photography and cinema

The prospect of inventing a device capable of transmitting images haunted several generations of scientists. At the beginning of the 19th century, Joseph Niepce projected the view from his studio window onto a metal plate using a camera obscura. And Louis-Jacques Mand Daguerre improved his invention in 1837.

The tireless inventor Tom Edison made his contribution to the invention of cinema. In 1891, he created the kinetoscope - a device for displaying photographs with the effect of movement. It was the kinetoscope that inspired the Lumiere brothers to create cinema. As you know, the first film show took place in December 1895 in Paris on the Boulevard des Capucines.

The debate about who first invented radio continues. However, most representatives of the scientific world attribute this merit to the Russian inventor Alexander Popov. In 1895, he demonstrated a wireless telegraphy apparatus and became the first person to send a radiogram to the world, the text of which consisted of two words “Heinrich Hertz”. However, the first radio receiver was patented by the enterprising Italian radio engineer Guglielmo Marconi.

A television

Television appeared and developed thanks to the efforts of many inventors. One of the first in this chain is professor of the St. Petersburg Technological University Boris Lvovich Rosing, who in 1911 demonstrated an image on a glass screen of a cathode ray tube. And in 1928, Boris Grabovsky found a way to transmit a moving image over a distance. A year later, in the USA, Vladimir Zvorykin created a kinescope, modifications of which were subsequently used in all televisions.

Internet

The World Wide Web, which has enveloped millions of people around the world, was modestly woven in 1989 by Briton Timothy John Berners-Lee. The creator of the first web server, web browser and website could have become the richest man in the world if he had patented his invention in time. As a result, the World Wide Web went to the world, and its creator received a knighthood, the Order of the British Empire and a Technology Prize of 1 million euros.