Economic laws and patterns. First Law of Economics Fundamental Law of Economics

The world around us and ourselves, with all its diversity, are arranged in such a way that processes and phenomena in nature and in society obey certain rules. In other words, there are typical, established, repeatedly repeated, universal relationships, connections both between the processes themselves and between the indicators that characterize them. These can be relationships of a cause-and-effect nature (a given cause always gives rise to a given effect), or stable dependencies between simultaneously manifesting different sides of the same process, or repeatedly manifesting the same type of results of the interaction of different phenomena. Universal general ways of "behavior" of everything that exists in the world, objectively characteristic of all phenomena of a given kind, class, are usually called laws.

The existence of laws has been discovered and repeatedly confirmed in the physical and biological world. These are the laws of mechanics, the law of conservation and transformation of matter and energy, the laws of heredity and the evolution of all living things. The principal feature of such laws is that they act independently of the will and consciousness of people.

Quite often one hears about the existence and manifestation of economic laws characterizing the typical features of relationships and interactions between parts, elements economic system, including people involved in economic processes. Usually, this refers to the existence of universal, constantly observed links and relationships between the production, distribution, exchange, consumption of things, goods, services and indicators characterizing these processes.

Is it true and to what extent economic phenomena, events, processes are objectively inherent in universality, typicality, allowing us to assert that we are observing the operation of objectively existing economic laws?

One thing seems clear and obvious: in that part in which the economy includes natural processes, and economic science is based on natural science, the physical and biological laws of the natural world operate. Here everything happens objectively, regardless of the will of people, in accordance with the original intention of the Creator. Therefore, when we confidently declare that it is impossible to consume more than what is available, produced, received, then this economic law follows entirely from the law of conservation of matter. Where the economy collides with the laws of nature, there is no need to think about the subjective factor. These laws are universal, and the problem lies only in the degree of knowledge and understanding of their scope, since the principle of relativity applies to them too. After all, even physical laws are not absolute.

The situation is much more complicated with the manifestation of natural principles in that main part of the economy, where people have intervened and continue to interfere in natural processes, where people have become an integral part of the economic system, participate in economic processes as producers, consumers, managers.

One of the great economists of the 19th century, Alfred Marshall, wrote about this: “The formulation of economic laws takes into account how a person tends to act in certain conditions. They are in one way reminiscent of physical laws: both require the existence of certain conditions. The laws of human behavior, of course, are not as simple, definite and not as clearly established as the law of universal gravitation, but many of them can be attributed to natural laws dealing with a complex subject of study.

We can say that economic theory in the study of the economic activity of people is based on well-known reasoning, basic assumptions, axioms.

Economic theory starts from the assumption that man, as a rational being, has the ability to adapt means to ends. That is, a person, if he needs to, will certainly prefer a greater benefit to a smaller one, a smaller sacrifice to a larger one, or will strive for the greatest need with the smallest donations, since this is a consequence of the limited human strength and the urgency of his needs. The solution of questions in the field of theoretical economy is reduced to the study of the fact that a person, due to a given set of circumstances, strives, expects the most favorable balance between benefits and donations.

But in life there are often deviations from this concept (proposal): sometimes people do not understand their benefits, do not realize their interests, do not know the means to achieve them. Often, knowing their interests, they do not want to follow them. There are many different obstacles that prevent you from reaching your goal. But as long as the above ideas about man are not proven, political economy argues in accordance with them.

To what extent can the laws of economics be considered the laws of human behavior?

It cannot be asserted that economic processes, connected with people, controlled by them, in everything proceed exactly as people wish, that the laws in this part of the economy are predetermined not by divine providence, but by human will. Undoubtedly, in the economic behavior of people, and along with them in individual parts of the economic system, stable signs, typical properties, reminiscent of the laws of nature, are observed. There is every reason to believe that people strive to increase incomes, that the structure of spending and consumption changes with income growth, that a significant increase in the money supply gives rise to price increases and a shortage of goods, that as the amount of certain goods that a particular person possesses increases, the relative value, the utility of each newly acquired unit decreases, that rich people tend to buy luxuries, and the poor - necessities.

At the same time, all these observable properties of economic behavior, the functioning of economic systems cannot be called laws in the full sense of the word. For the simple reason that individual subjects, following their own goals, desires, attitudes, habits, psychology, are able to deviate from general rules, do not comply with them. In addition, not only the whim of individual people, "originality", which takes them beyond the limits of typical, natural behavior, are observed. Often, deviations can be of a massive nature, moving into a different type of behavior for significant groups of people, and even countries whose population has its own economic mentality, both self-developed and inspired, imposed from outside.

That is why in the days of the USSR, Soviet economic science tried to introduce an idea of the economic laws inherent in individual formations. The "economic laws of capitalism", the "economic laws of socialism" appeared. But with this approach, the main feature of the law is lost - its universality.

Thus, it is necessary, on the one hand, to note the obvious signs of typicality, the commonality of a number of features inherent in the "human economy", economic processes, relationships, connections between the elements of the economic system, and, on the other hand, the inevitable penetration of subjective principles into them, limited generality .

In this regard, it seems that in relation to the economy it is more legitimate to use the term "regularities" than "laws". However, there is nothing worse than breaking the established terminology, therefore, following tradition, one will have to continue to use the words “law”, “laws” both in the book and in life.

2. The concept of economic regularity (law)

It should be noted that when it comes to economic objects, processes, relationships, the very word "law" is interpreted in two ways.

Firstly, these are objective regularities, which were mentioned earlier. Sometimes they are given the names of economists who discovered, discovered or described such patterns.

Secondly, laws are called legal regulations adopted by the legislature of the country. Such laws provide rules, norms of economic behavior, which are required to comply with government bodies, enterprises, organizations, firms, entrepreneurs, citizens of a given country. These are the laws imposed by the state, the government economic entities countries,
proceeding (by design) from the interests of society, the people. Sometimes such laws are given the names of those persons who proposed or adopted them. For example, in the United States, the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, which limited the rights of trade unions to strike, is widely known. Naturally, the laws of a country can be objective to a certain extent, but the presence of a subjective factor in them and the temporary nature of such laws obviously preclude their classification as economic laws.

At present, unfortunately, the systematization of economic patterns, their reduction into a clear system, has not been completed.

A necessary condition for science is a certain constancy and correct order in the phenomena it studies. Science concerning every kind of phenomena is possible when it can be shown that these phenomena are subject to certain kinds of laws, i.e. they constantly accompany each other or follow one after another in a certain order accessible to observation and study. Each person obeys his own mind and will, even fantasy in his economic action. Based on such observations, statesmen repeatedly tried to change the direction of economic activity by influencing the human will. But this is contradicted by a number of observations, which differ from the previous ones only in that economic actions are taken on a broader scale.

In every social phenomenon we meet with the action of two categories of causes: permanent and accidental or perturbative. In each individual case, the causes, both of the first and second kind, are so confused that it becomes impossible to distinguish the effect of each individual cause, which gives the phenomenon an individual character. When observing large masses of cases, random causes are mutually balanced; are mutually neutralized, and as a result, the totality of phenomena is presented in such a form as it would be if only permanent causes acted. The main reason for the variability of social phenomena is the participation of the human will, a given phenomenon will only have the same influence if the human will always treats it the same way. But in the field of the national economy, the will of individuals, to a greater extent than in other spheres of human activity, is subject to the influence of certain permanent causes, and therefore, in most cases, it follows a known direction. The motive of personal interest, constantly determines the human will in (interests), the area of \u200b\u200bthe economy, gives its relationship to nature and to other people the character of such constancy, which makes it possible to with good reason talk about the laws of economic phenomena. In the field of economy, one constantly has to deal with external nature and reckon with the laws of one's own organism. In a word, nature and its eternal laws determine the boundaries within which the human economy moves. Human there is a slave of habit, only a few criticize their habits, and many evaluate their actions by habit. Man is not free to choose various ways satisfaction of their needs. This need to obey the laws of nature is like the psychological law of habit, and those are the main reasons why the stamp of correctness and regularity is imposed on the arbitrariness of economic phenomena.

Man's economic activity follows from knowledge in society, from skills, from the breakdown of institutions, with the same necessity with which movement follows an external point. Human thought is working on their transformation, which serves as a constant source of changes taking place in the economy, despite the immutability of the laws of nature. Every new invention generates new ideas and gives the human will new stimuli, new ends and new means. Each generation adds its contribution to the spiritual capital of mankind, adds a new link to the chain of social development. More than one theoretical task, as well as practical needs, compel the development of legal norms to be associated with the nature of economic relations. With the influence that the legal system has on economic activity, sometimes minor omissions in the assessment of economic relations can lead to fatal consequences. On the other hand, a lack of understanding of economic life is sometimes expressed in the absence of legislative norms that the economic system of people's life needs.

The dependence of the legal system on economic relations is revealed in the differences that the same legal institutions represent when applied to different objects, depending on their unequal economic nature. Take, for example, property rights. According to the theory of Roman law, which has found expression in many modern codes, the right of ownership is defined as the complete, unlimited, exclusive domination of a person over a thing or as the complete legal subordination of a thing to the will of a person. Meanwhile, the right of ownership is in fact subject to various restrictions on the interests of other persons. The content of these restrictions varies according to the difference in the objects of ownership. Since the movables have an individual existence, a person can use them without affecting other things that are in someone else's property, without violating anyone's interests; immovable things, on the contrary, do not differ in such integrity, isolation and individual existence; they owe not to nature, but to the will of man. Economic nature real estate does not allow its use independently of others.

All this proves that the right of property is highly variable in its extent and completeness, depending on how economic importance has its object. This difference in the properties of legal definitions is a new argument in favor of the dependence in which positive law is on the economic order of society.

One of the types of objective laws of society is the economic law.

An objective economic law is an essential, necessary, stable relationship in economic phenomena and processes that determines their development.

In accordance with this definition, one can treat economic law as a special objective phenomenon and study its essence, content, structure (form) and conditions of action and manifestation.

The essence of economic law is to express the essential connection of the mode of production, that is, the specification of the essence of the law is directly related to the disclosure of the essence of this connection, which is predominantly causal, causal connection, one side of which determines the other.

Further, it is necessary to reveal the content of economic law, which is closely intertwined with its essence. According to its content, economic law is dialectical in nature. The elements of the content of the law are: the parties to the causal relationship; the process of interaction between these parties; forms of interaction between them; the result of this interaction.

In addition, there may be other elements of the content of the law. Basically, when this approach the law is known in action and, consequently, the content of the law is revealed as the elements of the mechanism of its action are clarified.

3. GENERAL ECONOMIC REGULARITIES

In this chapter, we will consider the most well-known and general patterns, principles that should be attributed to economic laws based on their universal nature, confirmation of the provisions of these laws in real life and the fact of scientific recognition of such laws.

3.1. Decreasing Law marginal utility. Utility maximization principle

utility as economic category means the ability of a product (products, goods, services) to satisfy certain needs of people. Note that the ordinary understanding of utility - as the properties of things to have a beneficial effect on a person, to help strengthen his health and spirit - differs from economic understanding. IN economic sense cigarettes, for example, are useful because they satisfy the needs of people who smoke. Such needs, alas, exist, although they are considered harmful.

IN economic theory utility is considered to be a quantitative, measurable value.

It is quite obvious that with an increase (up to a certain limit) in the number of things of a given type that are useful to the consumer, their total, total utility increases, that is, an increase in utility is observed as the volume of consumed goods grows. So, let's say, one chair in the house is minimally needed, with the acquisition of a second chair utility increases, the third chair increases the overall utility even more. At the same time, the increase in total utility with an increase in the number of goods is subject to a certain pattern, which manifests itself in the “fading” of the overall effect as consumption is saturated with goods. Disclosure of this pattern requires the introduction of the concept of "marginal utility". Among the limiting indicators studied economics, marginal utility occupies one of the leading places.

Marginal utility is the increase in the total consumption effect of a particular good (goods, services), achieved through the consumption of each additional unit of this good. It is easy to establish that total utility is the sum of the marginal utilities of all goods of a given type used by the consumer. Indeed, each new unit of a consumed good contributes an amount of utility equal to its marginal utility.

According to the law of diminishing marginal utility, each subsequent unit of a consumed good has a marginal utility lower than the previous one, that is, the additional consumption effect obtained from an increase in goods by one unit is lower than the effect received from the previous unit.

The practical significance of the law of diminishing marginal utility lies primarily in the fact that it makes it possible to predict the behavior of consumers, buyers when they choose the quantity and set of purchased and consumed goods.

Due to the manifestation of the law of diminishing marginal utility, consumers behave in a certain way when choosing a set of several goods for consumption. They proceed from the principle of maximizing utility. The essence of the principle is that the consumer, within the resource (monetary) possibilities available to him, prefers such a set of goods, in which the ratio of the marginal utility of each product to its price or the cost of acquiring it is the same for different goods.

3.2. The law of demand. Demand Curves

In a market economy, the concept of "demand" along with the concept of "supply" is one of the fundamental ones.

In principle, demand is the request of an actual or potential buyer, consumer to purchase a product for the money he has, intended for the purchase of this product. Demand reflects, on the one hand, the need of the buyer for some goods or services, the desire to purchase these goods or services in a certain quantity, and, on the other hand, the ability to pay for the purchase at prices that are within the “affordable” range.

Along with these generalized definitions, demand is characterized by a number of properties and quantitative parameters, from which we single out, first of all, the volume or magnitude of demand. From the standpoint of quantitative measurement, the demand for a product, understood as the volume of demand, means the amount of this product that buyers (consumers) desire, are ready and have the financial opportunity to purchase over a certain period at certain prices. Simply put, demand as a volume indicator characterizes the quantity of a product that buyers are able, intend, and will purchase at various possible prices.

The volume of demand depends primarily on the prices of the goods or services sold. But besides them, a number of other factors, which are sometimes called non-price factors, also affect the magnitude of demand. These are, first of all, consumer tastes, fashion, income ( purchasing power), the value of prices for other, related goods, the possibility of replacing this product with another.

In other words, let us find out how the magnitude of the demand for a commodity depends on the price of the commodity, all other things being equal.

The law of demand is manifested in the fact that, with other factors unchanged, the quantity (volume) of demand decreases as the price of a commodity increases. Mathematically, this means that there is an inverse relationship between demand and price.

The nature of the law of demand is essentially simple. If the buyer has a certain amount of money to purchase this product, then he will be able to buy the less product, the higher the price, and vice versa. Of course, the real picture is much more complicated, since the buyer can raise additional funds, purchase another product instead of the delivered product, replacing it. But in general, the law of demand reflects the general trend of curtailing the volume of purchases with an increase in prices for goods in conditions where the buyer's financial capabilities are limited to a certain limit.

Graphically, the law of demand is presented in the form of so-called demand curves, reflecting in the form of a graph the relationship, the functional relationship between the magnitude (volume) of demand and price, that is, the scale of demand.

Typical curves, demand are presented in the form of schedules on fig. 1. Demand curves are usually denoted by the letter D, representing the first letter of the English word "demand" - "demand". As can be seen from the graph of the D0 curve, as the price P increases from the value of P1 to the value of P7, the quantity demanded Q decreases from the value of Q1 to the value of Q7 in accordance with the law of demand.

Rice. 1. Demand curves

Demand curves allow you to establish not only the volume of demand corresponding to a given price for a product, but also to identify the sensitivity of the quantity demanded to changes in product prices. The degree of dependence of the magnitude of demand on the price of goods is called the elasticity of demand. If the quantity demanded reacts strongly to price changes, then they speak of high elasticity of demand, but if the quantity demanded changes little with price changes, then they speak of low elasticity. Let us illustrate the statements expressed graphically. On fig. Figure 2 shows demand curves (for simplicity, they are shown as straight-line segments, reflecting the case of a linear dependence of the quantity demanded on price), which have different elasticity.

Rice. 2. Demand curves with different elasticity

Curve 1 characterizes inelastic demand, in which the quantity demanded remains constant, equal to Q1, at almost any price P.

Curve 4 corresponds to the maximum elastic demand, at which the buyer is ready to buy; goods in a certain quantity at a price equal to (or less than), but completely refuses to buy at a price exceeding P4. This case corresponds to the demand for non-essential goods with clearly defined restrictions on the value cash costs associated with the purchase of this product.

Curve 2 illustrates low-elastic demand, the value of which changes little with price, and curve 3 illustrates highly elastic demand, the value of which is very sensitive to price.

It is necessary to distinguish between individual demand curves that reflect the reaction of an individual buyer to prices, market curves that characterize the volume of demand for a given product by all market buyers, and the function aggregate demand, reflecting the integrated demand on the scale of the economy of the country, that is, all buyers for all goods (this is a macroeconomic dependence).

The law of demand is fully effective only under certain conditions, primarily in relation to a competitive market.

3.3. The law of supply. Supply curves

If the law of demand expresses the reaction of buyers to the value of prices and their change, then the law of supply reflects the behavior of sellers of goods depending on prices and their dynamics.

The offer characterizes the ability and desire of the seller (manufacturer) to offer their goods for sale on the market at certain prices. Such a definition outlines the proposal and reflects its essence from a qualitative point of view. In quantitative terms, the proposal is characterized by its size, volume. The volume, value of supply is the quantity of a product (goods, services) that the seller (manufacturer) wants, can and is able to offer for sale on the market for a certain period of time at certain prices in accordance with the availability or production capabilities.

Like the volume of demand, the magnitude of the supply depends not only on the price, but also on a number of non-price factors, including production capabilities, the state of technology, resource provision, the level of prices for other goods, and inflationary expectations. Let us consider how the value of the supply depends precisely on the price of the goods, considering the remaining factors unchanged (as indicated above in relation to the law of demand, the proposal that the remaining factors remain unchanged when prices change largely determines the theoretical, abstract nature of subsequent constructions).

The law of supply is that, other things being constant, the quantity (volume) of supply increases as the price of a commodity increases.

An increase in the supply of a good with an increase in its price is due to general case the circumstance that at constant costs of production of a unit of goods, with an increase in price, profit grows and it becomes profitable for the producer (seller) to sell more of such goods. The real picture of the market is more complicated than this simple scheme, but the trend expressed in it usually takes place.

Graphically, the law of supply can be displayed by supply curves that display in the form of graphs the relationship, the functional relationship between the value (volume) of supply Q and price P, that is, the scale of supply. Typical supply curves are shown in fig. 3.

Fig.3. Supply curves

Supply curves are usually denoted by the letter S, representing the first letter of the English word "supply" - "offer". As can be seen from the graph of the S0 curve, as the price P of the value of P1 increases to the value of P5, the supply Q increases from the value of Q1 to the value of Q5 in accordance with the law of supply.

The starting point of the supply curve S0 corresponds to the price P0, below which the seller will not sell goods, primarily because he will not receive the minimum required profit. As the price exceeds P0, the quantity supplied increases as the price of the good increases. At the same time, the upper value of the supply is usually limited by a certain limit, due to the marginal, full use of one or more resources necessary for the production of a given product. As a result, the volume of supply, regardless of price, is always limited by the quantity of goods that the producer is able to produce and sell on the market;

By analogy with demand, one should distinguish between the supply value, which characterizes the change in the supply volume depending on the price when moving along the supply curve, and the supply as a whole, characterized by the shape and position of the entire supply curve. The shift of the entire supply curve is due to the action of non-price factors. For example, an increase in the cost of resources used in the production of goods leads to an increase in production costs, and with them the price of goods, as a result of which the supply curve S0 shifts to the right, to position S1, since less and less goods are offered at old prices. If, say, new technologies have made it possible to increase production and reduce costs, then it is natural to expect a decrease in prices and a shift in the supply curve S0 to the left, to position S0, since
more goods will be offered at the old prices. In both cases, it is not the supply curve that changes on a given curve depending on the price movement, but changes, the supply curve itself moves.

Supply, like demand, can be low elastic or highly elastic, depending on the steepness of the supply curve, that is, on how much the supply responds to price changes. Note that the elasticity of supply (and demand) can be different on different parts of the curve. For example, the curve shown in Fig. 3, low initial elasticity is characteristic, it increases (the curve goes steeply upwards), and subsequently decreases again.

Supply, like demand, can be individual (one seller), market (one market) and aggregate (many goods and markets).

The law of supply cannot be recognized as universal, not only because it characterizes the dependence of supply only on price, with other factors unchanged, but also because it operates in full force only in a highly competitive economy.

With pronounced signs of monopoly, in the absence of a competitive environment, which is typical for the Russian economy during the transition to a market, the operation of the law of supply manifests itself in a specific, distorted way. Namely, in conditions of rising prices, the producer and seller may be tempted not only not to increase supply, but, on the contrary, to reduce it. After all, an increase in price is able to cover the loss of the seller's income due to a decrease in sales, as a result of which profits can increase even with a decrease in production and sales.

The laws of supply and demand, as the fundamental laws of the free market economy, do not establish strict quantitative relationships, but are of a qualitative nature.

Both laws express stable trends in the price behavior of producers and consumers, sellers and buyers, which manifest themselves and act under certain conditions under certain assumptions.

3.4. Law monetary circulation

Between the circulating money supply, moving from buyers to sellers, and the mass of commodities, moving from producers and sellers to buyers of goods, there are certain relationships, connections that are of a stable nature and therefore can be called the law of monetary circulation. This law is of a macroeconomic nature, reflecting the processes on a national scale. Let the total amount of cash and non-cash money(more full view about this mass is given in the subsequent presentation), circulating in the country during a certain period of time, is equal to M, and the mass of goods circulating during the same time is equal to Q. Let us conditionally represent the entire commodity mass Q, in the form of one product, which is sold at a price P for commodity unit. Obviously, the process of buying and selling this commodity gives rise to the need to "balance" the money and commodity mass by means of the price P, designed to make the exchange of goods for money equivalent. This means that the amount of money circulating in a country during a certain period must be equal to the monetary value of the goods sold in that period. The latter is equal to the product of the quantity of goods Q, by the price of a unit of goods P. Mathematically, the condition for the correspondence of the money and commodity mass is expressed by the dependence:

M = Q x P

If we take into account that the same money supply M can be used in the process of purchasing goods Q repeatedly, since during the period under consideration, for example, a year, money is able to make V turns, the condition for balancing the money supply and the commodity supply takes the form:

M x V \u003d Q x P

This is the equation of monetary circulation, which expresses in mathematical form the essence of the law of monetary circulation.

Note that this ratio remains valid even in conditions where a lot of goods sold at different prices are involved in the process of buying and selling. In such a situation, the right side of the monetary circulation equation takes the form:

Q x P =Σ Qi Pi

I=1

Where

Qi - the amount of sold "i" goods;

Pi - unit price "g" of goods;

n is the total number of types of goods sold.

As follows from what has been said above, the law of money circulation can be interpreted as the law of correspondence between the money supply circulating in the country and the money value of the circulating mass of commodities.

The law of money circulation reflects in its essence monetarist concept money and the commodity nature of price. It follows from the law of money circulation that by regulating money supply in circulation, the state is able to influence prices. Due to the extremely aggregate nature of the indicators of the mass of money in circulation, the mass of commodities and the price included in the equation of money circulation, it is very difficult to determine their quantitative values. Therefore, despite its mathematical notation, the law of money circulation is rather not a quantitative, but a qualitative ratio. It does not reflect the circulation of "non-commodity" money.

In addition to the economic laws discussed above, the universal and most famous include:

the law of the rise of needs: needs grow quantitatively and even more so qualitatively);

the principle of limited resources: all types of economic resources at the disposal of mankind as a whole, individual countries, enterprises, families, are limited both in quantitative and qualitative terms;

production possibilities frontier: the limit of production possibilities is the maximum possible volume of production of a certain product (goods, services) for a given volume and structure of disposable resources available or allocated for the production of this product;

the law of increasing opportunity costs (lost opportunities, additional costs - reflects the property of a market economy, according to which, in order to obtain each additional unit of one product, one has to pay with the loss of an ever-increasing number of other goods, that is, an increase in lost opportunities;

the law of diminishing returns (returns): the increment in the output of a certain product due to an increase in any variable factor with the remaining fixed factors decreases, starting from a certain volume of output;

There are many more general and particular economic laws and patterns that are widespread, but, unfortunately, due to the limited scope of work, it is not possible to consider them in the project.

In the next chapter, we will consider the mechanism of interaction between economic laws and the economic activity of people.

4. INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC LAWS AND PEOPLE'S ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

One of the main characteristic features The action of an objective law lies in the fact that it acts as the law of the action of natural, social forces, that the action of these forces is a deterministic action of the law, since the law represents the essential interconnections and dependencies of these forces.

To apply this concept to economic law, it is necessary to clarify that social economic forces- these are the forces of the relationship of people in social production and, therefore:

social forces operating in the economy are the product and expression of essential, recurring causal relationships between people in the process social production;

the action of social forces is the action and manifestation of the economic laws themselves;

socio-economic forces act as a form of action of economic law.

Thus, a concept that calls into question the operation of the law and recognizes only its manifestation, ultimately leads to a direct opposition of the law and the activities of people. Such a judgment is the result of an artificial opposition between the objective and subjective factors of economic development.

In the discussion about the mechanism of action of economic laws, two opposing concepts have developed. According to the first, the subjective factor is included in the mechanism of laws. According to the second, any possibility of the presence of a subjective factor is swept aside.

Raising the question of objective and subjective factors makes sense only within the limits of active human activity. Objective and subjective factors are not objective and subjective conditions of activity, just as the subject of activity cannot be considered as a subjective factor.

The problem of objective and subjective requires a clear clarification of the difference between the object and the subject of activity, objective and subjective conditions activity, objective and subjective factor in the activity itself.

Based on this formulation of the question, it is impossible to come to an unambiguous opinion about whether the subjective factor is included in the mechanism of the economic law. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the role and place of the subjective factor in the operation and implementation of the historical necessity of the causal relationship of the mode of production. In this aspect, it must be emphasized that the presence of the subjective factor in the mechanism of the law in no way leads to incomplete objectivity of either the causal relationship expressed by the law, or the mechanism for the reproduction and functioning of this relationship.

Thus, the main thing in the dialect of objective and subjective in the mechanism of action of the economic law is that the subjective depends on the objective, is subordinate to it, is determined by it. However, the will, consciousness, goals of individuals, production teams, society as a whole do not always and not in everything correspond to the objective factor. The latter are specifically transformed into the activity of the subjective factor. Therefore, in their dialectical interaction, there is an active feedback effect, the influence of the subjective factor on the objective side of the social production activities all structural links of the society's economy. Consequently, the relation between the objective and the subjective in the economic activity of people includes the following aspect: the correlation of the action and use of economic laws.

The economic activity of people is both a process of action and a process of using economic laws. The nature of economic laws makes it necessary to use them consciously. Therefore, the action of laws occurs mainly through the conscious activity of people at all levels of the economy. At the same time, the conscious use of economic laws involves the study of the mechanism of action of each law and the entire system of laws, the development of principles, forms and methods of their use.

5. MECHANISM OF OPERATION OF ECONOMIC LAWS

There are two types of mechanism, the action of laws, due to the peculiarities of the manifestation of the laws of nature and the laws of social life. The laws of social development exist within the framework of people's activities. Therefore, in order to reveal the operation of the mechanism of economic laws, it is necessary to trace their operation in conditions of conscious application. That is, it is necessary to find out the internal connection between the actions of economic laws and the activities of people, having studied how the activities of people are subject to the action of laws, what are the ways and forms of implementation and implementation of the latter. Thus, the question arises of determining the place of the mechanism of action of economic laws in common system production relations.

Production relations act, as a rule, in three aspects: as a system of essential connections and relations; as a system of forms of movement and manifestation; as a system of dialectical unity of the essence and phenomenon of production relations.

The mechanism of operation of economic laws belongs to the relations of the third group. If the first system of categories is studied mainly from the side of their essence, the second system of categories - mainly from the side of the phenomenon, forms of movement, then the third system of categories is considered as a process of continuous dialectical interpenetration and mutual transition of systems of relation of the essence of the phenomenon, as a process, therefore, of reproduction real movement systems of industrial relations in close connection with the practical economic activity of people.

The mechanism of action of the law is the expression of the transition law-requirements into law, reality.

Production relations develop and are carried out under the regulatory influence of the system of economic laws.

The main form of economic relations is the contradictory unity economic needs and economic interests of individuals. And since economic relations are inherently relations between a system of economic needs and economic interests, then the laws expressing these relations are the laws of movement of the needs of production, people and their economic interests. There are no economic laws outside this system of needs and interests. At the same time, the decisive motive for the activity of people in the process of production is the same system of their economic needs and interests. Thus, the forms of economic laws and economic activity of people are of the same order. Hence the unity in the system “the action of laws - the activity of people in the process of production”, hence the subordination of the economic activity of people to the requirements of laws. But there is no absolute identity here. Economic relations- economic laws - people's activities - in a certain sense, these are different levels, different stages of the movement of a single content, the internal connection of which is obvious. However, this connection does not act in a straightforward and direct way, since the laws are implemented through connecting links. That is, the action of the law on economic phenomena and processes is carried out through material forms of communication, links, the system of which is one of the most important elements of the mechanism of its action.

Thus, it is impossible to imagine the economic activity of people without diversity. economic forms, their organizations, movements. The activities of people in economic area necessarily takes place in specific material, economic forms.

Consequently, the law through a series of links, steps from the depth reaches the surface of phenomena. Through this mechanism of its implementation and manifestation, it regulates the economic processes of distribution. However, it is not enough to study these links, forms of manifestation and implementation of the law. It is also necessary to consider the subordination, subordination, interdependence of these forms, links, to see the dialectics of the transition and mutual transition of some forms into others, to determine the specific place and specific role of each link in the general chain of the mechanism of the law in objective reality. Also, when analyzing the mechanism of operation of any economic law, it is necessary to take into account such an objective process as improvement, change in the forms of operation of laws as social production develops. Development material production and the change on this basis of the economic needs and economic interests of people causes, in turn, a change in the forms of the movement of laws, the very forms of economic relations.

All of the above does not reveal all aspects of the relationship between the operation of laws and the economic activity of people. The assertion that the implementation of economic laws depends on the activities of people does not logically contradict the assertion that economic laws determine the actions of people, that they are subject to objective conditions of production that do not depend on their will and consciousness. However, in addition to economic laws, other circumstances determine the activities of people: a lot of sociological laws, for example. In addition, public consciousness as a whole is only a reflection of objective reality, so it tends to lag behind social life. As for the individual consciousness of people, it contains many contradictions that are formed, including under the influence of completely random factors. In a word, many circumstances induce people to action. And in this interacting whirlpool of circumstances, economic laws only ultimately determine the actions of people, society.

CONCLUSION

The economic activity of people is subject to economic laws. Although this term is less suitable for those processes taking place in economic life. It would be more accurate to use the concept of "economic patterns", as they combine both objective and subjective principles.

Economic laws are one of the types of objective laws of society.

Based on this, the work also provides a definition of economic law - this is an essential, necessary, stable relationship in economic phenomena and processes that determines their development.

The essence of economic law lies in the expression of the essential connection of the mode of production, that is, the concretization of the essence of the law is directly related to the disclosure of the essence of this connection.

The paper also considers the most well-known and general patterns, principles related to economic laws: the law of diminishing marginal utility: the principle of utility maximization; laws of supply and demand; the law of money circulation. In addition to these laws, there are many more general and frequent economic laws and patterns.

The mechanism of action of economic law is the expression of the transition of law-demand into law-reality.

LIST OF SOURCES USED

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Introduction to market economy/ Ed. AND I. Livshits, I.N. Nikulina. –M., 1998.
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Zaidel H., Temmen R. Fundamentals of economics. M.: Delo LTD, 1996.
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DYNAMIC AND STATISTICAL REGULARITIES IN NATURE MAIN ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF THE SOCIETY: WHAT TO PRODUCE? HOW TO PRODUCE? FOR WHOM TO PRODUCE?; THEIR SOLUTION IN VARIOUS ECONOMIC SYSTEMS 2015-01-29

Each science has its own rules, having studied and understood which you can master this science. They help mathematicians solve complex problems and problems that seem unsolvable to a simple layman. The buyer should understand whether it is profitable for him to buy diamond products at the moment or it is better to pay attention to gold. The laws of economics allow the entrepreneur to predict and understand the behavior of the client.

Basic laws of economics

The law of scarcity. A rare commodity always costs more because the demand for it exceeds the supply.

The law of supply and demand. The price of a good or service is directly proportional to supply and demand. In order to increase the price of products, you need to work on demand.

The Law of Substitution. When a product becomes unavailable or expensive, customers look for a replacement. Has the price of beef gone up? Buying chicken.

The law of interconnectedness. All products are interconnected. When the price rises on one of them, the other also rises.

The Law of Margin. The price is determined by the buyer who bought the last remaining product.

Law of diminishing returns. Over time, any product becomes cheaper, and the cost of it is more expensive. This results in lower profits and higher costs.

The law of increasing returns. The price of a good or service can rise, but only if supply or production grows and outstrips competitors.

The law of choice. The choice of a person is determined by his values and preferences.

Separate price law. The price is individual and is determined by the willingness of the buyer to pay.

The law of the maximum. Everyone wants to get the most out of what they buy. If the client is interested

When making important strategic decisions in commercial activities it is also necessary to analyze the mechanism of their action from the standpoint of the basic economic laws.

We automatically apply many economic laws without thinking about the essence in our daily activities. Therefore, it is not always possible to use them all in combination. Indeed, in order to successfully complete the task and achieve the intended goal, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of actions.

Basic economic laws

the law of the rise of needs;
the law of dependence between demand and price (the law of demand);
the law of dependence between supply and price (the law of supply);
the law of dependence between supply and demand;
the law of increasing additional costs;
the law of diminishing returns;
the law of economic interconnection of costs in the spheres of production and consumption;
the law of scale effect of production;
the law of the effect of experience;
the law of economy of time;
competition law.

The Law of Elevation of Needs

The Law of Elevation of Needs is a tendency of constant growth of human needs. This is an objective law of the development of society, in accordance with which there is a process of increasing types (names), varieties, changing the structure (in favor of quality) of consumer goods and services and their quality.

The number of types of goods and services doubles in about 10 years, their volumes in physical terms and structure change differentially for each assortment group.

Law of demand

The law of the relationship between demand and price (the law of demand) characterizes the change in the price of a product when the demand for it changes (with a constant level of quality).

A price decrease (Price) causes an increase in the quantity demanded (Quantity), an increase in price causes a decrease in the quantity demanded, i.e. the buyer either does not have the means to buy this product, or he buys a substitute product.

Here it should be especially noted that in reality the situation with this law is not so simple, because. There are a number of non-price factors affecting demand:

The level of income in society;
Market size;
Fashion and seasonality;
Availability of substitute products;
inflation expectations.

Law of supply

The law of demand describes the behavior of buyers when the price of a product changes. The behavior of sellers (manufacturers) of goods on the market describes the law of supply. Supply is that aspect of market relations that reflects the direct relationship between market price product and its quantity offered by the seller, manufacturer or intermediary.

The law of supply characterizes the change in the price of a commodity (Price) when its supply on the market (Quantity) changes.

If prices rise, then more goods of this name will enter the market, the market stimulates an increase in the volume of supply, it is beneficial for sellers (manufacturers) to increase sales (production volume). Conversely, if the price of a given product on the market decreases (under the influence of market mechanisms, not sellers), then it becomes unprofitable for sellers to offer this product on such a market and its supply will decrease.

The balance of supply and demand

The mechanism of action of the law of dependence between supply and demand is explained by the interaction of the supply curve and the demand curve. The supply curve shows how much of a good and at what price producers can sell in the market.

The higher the price, the greater the number of firms has the ability to produce and sell goods. A higher price allows existing firms to expand output in a short period of time by attracting additional work force or the use of other factors, and in a long period of time - due to the extensive development of the production itself. A higher price can also attract new firms to the market, which still have high production costs and whose products at low prices are unprofitable.

The demand curve (Demand) shows how much of the product consumers are willing to purchase at each price. The buyer usually prefers to buy more if the price is lower (at the same level of quality).

The two curves intersect at the equilibrium point of supply and demand, i.e., when the price and quantity of goods are balanced on both curves. At this point, there is neither a shortage nor an oversupply, which means there is no pressure to change the price further. This law operates in conditions of perfect, or pure, competition.

Law of Increasing Additional Costs

The law of increasing additional costs characterizes the structure of the country's wealth, the relationship between accumulation and consumption. On an aggregated basis, accumulations include acquired or created material and intangible assets, to consumption - a set of goods and services created for personal consumption individuals.

The level of wealth of the country as a whole is determined by the level of its integrated development and natural and climatic conditions. With incomplete use of resources, additional costs increase, with the same level of consumption, the share of accumulation decreases, the share of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. The efficiency of resource use in Russia is 2-3 times lower than in industrial developed countries, and GDP per capita - 4-6 times less.

law of diminishing returns

The law of diminishing returns manifests itself at the micro level: it shows that each subsequent unit of efficiency requires more units of cost than the previous unit of efficiency, when the law of scale has already exhausted itself.

For example, when the strength of competition increases, the increment of each subsequent market share requires more costs than the increment of the market by the same share in previous period. Or the achievement of each additional increase in the reliability of the machine requires funds many times more than was spent on achieving the previous same share of reliability.

The Law of Economic Interrelation of Costs in the Spheres of Production and Consumption

The law of the economic relationship of costs in the areas of production and consumption reflects the ratio of costs in the areas of production (development, manufacture, storage) and consumption (delivery, use, restoration, disposal) of an object.

Any strategic decisions should take these types of costs into account. A significant increase, for example, in the quality of an object entails an increase in production costs while reducing the share of operating costs in total costs. In this case, the optimum level of quality will be achieved at the lowest total cost.

Law of scale effect

The law of economies of scale is manifested in the fact that with an increase in the program for the production of products or the performance of any work (up to the optimal value), conditionally fixed (or indirect) costs, which include general factory and general workshop costs, decrease per unit of production, reducing its cost accordingly. . At the same time, the quality of the products is improved.

Studies show that the output program can be increased by increasing the market share by increasing the competitiveness of products, performing a set of works on the unification and aggregation of homogeneous products. Due scale effect The cost of the same type of product can be reduced by up to two times, and the quality of its manufacture can be increased up to 40%.

Law of experience effect

Scheme of the operation of the law of the effect of work experience or development new products similar to the scheme of operation of the law of scale.

Obviously, when a person does work for the first time, it will take him several times more time than after fully mastering the methods, techniques and skills of doing this work.

The law of economy of time

The law of saving time in the author's interpretation states that innovation activity should ensure a steady increase in the efficiency of similar objects, i.e., a reduction in the amount of costs of past (reified), living and future labor for life cycle of a given object per unit of its useful effect (return) in comparison with the previous object model or the best world sample.

Such a narrow static approach to the main law of the efficiency of social production - the law of economy of time- excludes from the scope of the study the operating costs and the beneficial effect of the object, leads in the future to inefficient use of resources on a national economic scale.

Law of competition

The law of competition is a law according to which an objective process of constant improvement in the quality of products and services and a decrease in their unit price (the price divided by the useful effect of the object) takes place in the world.

The law of competition is an objective process of "removing" low-quality expensive products from the market. The law of competition can work for a long time only when high-quality antimonopoly legislation works.

Basic economic laws, are not in themselves difficult to understand. These are the basic, simplest rules that describe the work on competitive market. But at the same time, the neglect of even one of these basic laws is enough to lose the opportunity to achieve the intended result.

There are some rules in mathematics which, once understood, allow the mathematician to solve complex problems that are impossible for the average person to solve.

In mechanics, there are some proven rules that allow an experienced craftsman, using certain methods, processes and tools, to repair a car or aircraft, which would be impossible for an ordinary person.

There are laws in economics explaining all human behavior. Understanding these laws is simply necessary for an entrepreneur:

1. Law of scarcity: economic goods are valuable because their supply is less than desired.

You must constantly choose various options because you can't have everything you want.
Since commodities are scarce, trade-offs must always be made.

2. Law of supply and demand: The price of a good or service is directly related to the available supply relative to the demand at the time of purchase.

This law governs all prices, profits, wages, growth, decline, costs, losses, and the economic success or failure of any business.
Successful entrepreneurs are constantly working to increase the demand for what they sell in order to increase their asking price.
Entrepreneurs are constantly trying to provide their products and services better, cheaper, faster or more conveniently.

3. Law of substitution: some goods and services can be substituted for each other by changing their supply-demand ratio.

When beef gets too expensive, people buy chicken.
When gas prices get too high, people buy smaller cars.
When the cost of labor gets too high, companies automate it and replace people with machines.

The consumer in the market always has three options for further action:

Buy the proposed product or service from you.
Buy something else from your competitors.
Generally refuse to buy.

4. Law of connectedness: different products are related to each other, positively or negatively, and directly or indirectly affect each other's price.

When the price of a product goes up, it often causes the price of something related to it to go up as well (as the price of food goes up, restaurant prices also go up).
When the price of one commodity rises, it may cause a decrease in the demand for something else (as prices rise in a restaurant, the number of people visiting this restaurant decreases).
Price cohesion can affect the costs of other products (people stop going to the restaurant, so the restaurant buys less food from other suppliers).

5. Law of marginality: All economic decisions and thus all prices and costs are determined by the last purchase decision made.

The amount that the last customer pays for the last item in stock determines the price of the entire batch.
It is the last customer who can buy a given product or buy it anywhere that sets the price.
The market clearing price is the price at which all customers will satisfy their needs and sellers will sell their goods and services.

6. Law of diminishing returns: income, compensation, or profits from some economic activity decrease over time.

You can often make high profits on the first product or service you sell.
However, the costs of producing these products may increase over time.
Later, you will earn less profit for this product or service because your costs will become much higher.

7. Law of increasing returns: the profitability of a product, service or activity can increase with an increase in production or supply.

Nowadays, knowledge is the real source of competitive advantage.
Because you produce a knowledge-based product, your efficiency increases with each unit produced.
So your cost per unit is reduced, thereby increasing your profit per unit sold.

8. The law of side effects: every action has direct and indirect consequences.

Something else happens as a result of your every action.
If you fail to do something, there is still some consequence.
Accurate assessment of side effects is a sign of superior thinking.

9. The Law of Unintended Consequences: the final results of many actions are much worse than if nothing had been done.

Sometimes activities undertaken to make a profit actually turn out to be a loss.
Unintended consequences always arise when the success of an activity depends on someone violating the principle of expediency.

10. The law of choice: every human activity entails a choice among several alternatives, which is always based on the dominant values of a particular person at a given moment.

Your true values are always expressed in your actions.
You always choose what you value the most.
Every action you take or don't take involves a choice in the manifestation of your values and beliefs.

11. Law of excluded alternative: whatever you choose, you simultaneously exclude all other alternatives for the moment.

Each choice implies the rejection of all other choices by at least for now.
Every choice you make tells you and others what you truly value.

12. Law of individual value: the value of any thing is subjective; it is determined by someone who is willing to pay for it.

All prices are information-based assumptions about how much people are willing to pay to consume all of the offered good produced.
All sales of goods and services at discount prices are the assumption of the company or sellers that the original asking price was too high.
The price of a product or service can only be determined by the person who is offered to pay for it.

13. Law of maximization: every person tries to get the most out of any activity.

According to the principle of expediency, "human beings are greedy, lazy, impatient, ambitious, selfish, ignorant and vain; they constantly strive for survival, security, comfort, pleasure, love, respect and self-realization."

According to this principle, "People are invariably looking for the shortest and easiest way to get the things they want right now, without worrying about the side effects."

All economic activity built on these principles. All economic results can be explained by these laws.

The best entrepreneur is one who fully understands these laws and organizes his business operations in such a way that they are in harmony with them.

most the best country is a country that creates conditions in which these laws lead to more prosperity and increase the number of opportunities for more people.

When developing important strategic decisions, it is recommended to analyze the mechanism of action of the following economic laws of the functioning of market relations:

the law of the rise of needs;
the law of dependence between demand and price (the law of demand);
the law of dependence between supply and price (the law of supply);
the law of dependence between supply and demand;
the law of increasing additional costs;
the law of diminishing returns;
the law of economic interconnection of costs in the spheres of production and consumption;
the law of scale effect of production;
the law of the effect of experience;
the law of economy of time;
competition law.

Consider the essence of these laws.

The Law of Elevation of Needs- this is an objective law, in accordance with which the world is undergoing a process of increasing types (names), varieties, changing the structure (in favor of quality) of consumer goods and services and their quality. The number of types of goods and services doubles in about 10 years, their volumes in physical terms and structure change differentially for each assortment group.

The law of the relationship between demand and price (the law of demand) characterizes the change in the price of a product with a change in demand for it (with a constant level of quality). With a decrease in the price of a product, the demand for it rises, and with an increase in price, on the contrary, it decreases, that is, the buyer either does not have the means to buy this product, or he buys a substitute product.

The law of demand describes the behavior of buyers when the price of a product changes. The behavior of sellers (manufacturers) of goods on the market describes the law of supply. Offer is that aspect of market relations that reflects the direct relationship between the market price of a product and its quantity offered by the seller, manufacturer or intermediary. The law of supply characterizes the change in the price of a good when its supply changes in the market. If prices rise, then more goods of this name will enter the market, the market stimulates an increase in the volume of supply, it is beneficial for sellers (manufacturers) to increase sales (production volume). Conversely, if the price of a given product on the market decreases (under the influence of market mechanisms, not sellers), then it becomes unprofitable for sellers to offer this product on such a market and its supply will decrease.

Mechanism of action the law of the relationship between supply and demand explained by the interaction of the supply curve and the demand curve. The supply curve shows how much of a good and at what price producers can sell in the market. The higher the price, the greater the number of firms has the ability to produce and sell goods. A higher price allows existing firms to expand output in the short term by hiring additional labor or other inputs, and in the long term by expanding production itself. A higher price can also attract new firms to the market, which still have high production costs and whose products at low prices are unprofitable.

The demand curve shows how much of a product consumers are willing to buy at each price. The buyer usually prefers to buy more if the price is lower (at the same level of quality). The two curves intersect at the equilibrium point of supply and demand, i.e., when the price and quantity of goods are balanced on both curves. At this point, there is neither a shortage nor an oversupply, which means there is no pressure to change the price further. This law operates in conditions of perfect, or pure, competition.

Law of Increasing Additional Costs characterizes the structure of the country's wealth, the relationship between accumulation and consumption. Aggregated accumulations include acquired or created tangible and intangible assets, consumption - a set of goods and services created for personal consumption by individuals. The level of wealth of the country as a whole is determined by the level of its integrated development and natural and climatic conditions. With incomplete use of resources, additional costs increase, with the same level of consumption, the share of accumulation decreases, the share of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. The efficiency of resource use in Russia is 2-3 times lower than in industrialized countries, and GDP per capita is 4-6 times less.

law of diminishing returns manifests itself at the micro level: it shows that it takes more cost units to obtain each subsequent unit of efficiency than to obtain the previous unit of efficiency, when the law of scale has already exhausted itself. For example, when the strength of competition increases, the increment of each subsequent market share requires more costs than the increment of the market by the same share in the previous period. Or the achievement of each additional increase in the reliability of the machine requires funds many times more than was spent on achieving the previous same share of reliability.

The Law of Economic Interrelation of Costs in the Spheres of Production and Consumption reflects the ratio of costs in the areas of production (development, manufacture, storage) and consumption (delivery, use, restoration, disposal) of the object. Any strategic decisions should take these types of costs into account. A significant increase, for example, in the quality of an object entails an increase in production costs while reducing the share of operating costs in total costs. In this case, the optimum level of quality will be achieved at the lowest total cost.

Law of scale effect It manifests itself in the fact that with an increase in the program for the production of products or the performance of any work (up to the optimal value), conditionally fixed (or indirect) costs, which include general factory and general workshop costs, decrease per unit of production, reducing its cost accordingly. At the same time, the quality of the products is improved. Studies show that the output program can be increased by increasing the market share by increasing the competitiveness of products, performing a set of works on the unification and aggregation of homogeneous products. Due to the scale factor, the cost of homogeneous products can be reduced by up to two times, and the quality of its manufacture can be increased by up to 40%.

Scheme of action experience effect law performance of work or the development of new products is similar to the scheme of the law of scale. It is obvious that if a person performs work for the first time, then he will spend several times more time than after fully mastering the methods, techniques and skills of performing this work.

The law of economy of time in the author's interpretation states that innovation activity should ensure a steady increase in the efficiency of similar objects, i.e., a reduction in the sum of the costs of past (reified), living and future labor for the life cycle of a given object per unit of its useful effect (return) compared to the previous model object or the best world model.

The category of "future labor" in economic theory was not and is not, as a result of which the law of saving time in the scientific and educational literature was considered (in Soviet times) and is now considered as saving the amount of past and living labor per unit of output. Such a narrow static approach to the main law of the efficiency of social production - the law of saving time - excludes the operating costs and the beneficial effect of the object from the scope of research, and leads in the future to inefficient use of resources on a national economic scale.

Law of competition— a law according to which an objective process of constantly improving the quality of products and services, reducing their unit price (the price divided by the useful effect of the object) takes place in the world. The law of competition that we have formulated is an objective process of “washing out” low-quality expensive products from the market. The law of competition can work for a long time only under the action of high-quality antimonopoly legislation.