General characteristics of the development of the economy of antiquity. Ancient Greece 5 features of the socio-economic system of ancient Greece

Class society and the state were formed in the ancient world in a different and independent way from the countries of the Ancient East. The slave system that developed in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, differed significantly from ancient Eastern slavery both in the relatively higher level of development of productive forces and in more mature slave-owning production relations.

Since Ancient Greece did not represent a single state, the generally accepted periodization of its history is not entirely acceptable for this course. In this case, we present the following periodization economic history Ancient Greece:

Cretan-Mycenaean period (XIX-XII centuries BC);
Homeric period (XII-VIII centuries BC);
the era of colonization and the formation of slave states (VIII-VI centuries BC);
the heyday of ancient Greece (VI-IV centuries BC);
Hellenistic period (III-II centuries BC).

The basis of the economy of Crete was Agriculture. In Crete, at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. they used the plow and grew wheat, barley, beans, lentils, peas, flax, and saffron. The Cretans were already good gardeners and were famous for their harvests of olives and grapes, figs and dates. Cattle breeding (cattle and small cattle, pigs, poultry) was also developed in Crete. The main occupation of most Cretans was fishing.

Crete was famous for its artisans who made products from ivory, clay, faience, wood and produced various types of weapons. Bronze was used to make household items and craft tools. From gold and silver, Cretan artisans made luxury items and religious accessories for kings, nobility and priesthood. The Cretans conducted brisk trade with many countries and regions of the Mediterranean: Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Sicily, Cyprus, the Black Sea regions, southern France and Italy.

Since the 15th century. BC e. the decline of the Cretan slave society begins. Slavery in the Mycenaean era had not yet acquired much development. Slaves were not yet a class.

The Homeric period in the history of Ancient Greece represents a transitional period - the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of a slave society (XII-VIII centuries BC). This period was characterized by the presence of tribal communities,

within which there was property inequality. Under the influence of property stratification, clans began to split into large patriarchal families with hereditary private land ownership, which later grew into private land ownership. Communities of the Homeric period settled in fortified cities, the economy of which was based on agriculture and pastoralism (horse breeding, pig breeding), and cattle breeding. Crafts had not yet separated from agriculture, and product exchange was still in its infancy (exchange of surplus). Slavery was patriarchal. There was no disdain for work: even tribal leaders herded livestock and plowed. Slave labor was used little. In general, this is a period of gradual formation economic prerequisites to the formation of classes and the state. The positions of the leader of the tribe - basileus (king), elders of clans and their associations were transformed from elected into hereditary ones, although the functions of these persons were limited only to military and judicial power.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The first slave-holding city-states (policies) began to form. At this time, crafts were finally separated from agriculture. Mining, blacksmithing, foundry, shipbuilding, ceramic production, trade began to develop, and minted coins appeared. Under the influence of the development of productive forces and trade, the ancient Greeks began to conquer and colonize new lands, which were carried out in three main directions:

To the northeast, i.e. to the Black Sea;
to the west, to Sicily and the south of the Apennine Peninsula;
south to Egypt and the coast of North Africa.

As a result, the so-called Greek world was created, in which the colonial outskirts played the role of suppliers of slaves and food for the metropolises - the ancient Greek states. Of all the Greek states, Athens and Sparta were the most powerful.

Sparta arose 200 years earlier than Athens and was a striking example of an aristocratic slave state. The population of Sparta was divided into three main groups: Spartiates (full-fledged community members), perieki (personally free, but politically powerless) and helots (dependent rural population, slaves of the entire Spartan community). The occupation of the Spartiates was war, and in peacetime - continuous and tireless preparation for it. Physical labor was considered a humiliating task. The perieki, who paid taxes to the Spartan state, were engaged in crafts and trade.

In terms of economic development, Sparta was one of the most backward states of Ancient Greece. The main branches of the economy were primitive agriculture and cattle breeding. Labor force there were slaves who cultivated grapes, olives, barley, wheat and other crops. Crafts and trade were in their infancy. Sparta is characterized by a complete underdevelopment of exchange and monetary circulation: instead of money, the Spartans circulated iron plates, which were not accepted in neighboring regions.

The rise of Athens (the main city of Attica) began in the 7th century. BC e., which was facilitated by both favorable natural conditions and the significant development of trade relations, the availability of silver and building materials. Agriculture in Athens was undeveloped due to infertility of the soil. Food was purchased in exchange for handicrafts. In the middle of the 5th century. BC e. Athens, exploiting other Greek states, reached its greatest prosperity. They became the political and economic center of all of Greece, becoming a trading city of world importance. The Athenian port of Piraeus dominated trade throughout the Mediterranean. Products of Greek cities were exported through Piraeus - wines, olive oil, various handicrafts, metals. Goods arrived in Piraeus from many countries: iron and copper from Italy, bread from Sicily and the Black Sea region, ivory from Africa, spices and luxury goods from the countries of the East. The grain trade was under state control. Slaves were a major import. The main means of replenishing the labor force for Greek policies at this time was the slave trade.

Along with trade, usury developed, which was carried out by the owners of money changers - trapezites. Given the variety of coins circulating in the Greek world, the exchange of money had important for trade. Trapezites also carried out transfer operations and took money for safekeeping. Large moneylending operations were carried out by temples.

The victory of Greece in the Greco-Persian Wars (500-449 BC) contributed to the final establishment of the slave system in Athens and other Greek city-states. The capture of huge booty and masses of prisoners strengthened the economic position of Athens. It was from this period that the widespread displacement of the labor of free people by the cheaper labor of slaves began. Ancient Greece entered the heyday of the slave society.

In the 5th century BC e. The development of the Greek economy was marked by significant unevenness. Crafts and trade developed relatively early only in part of the Greek city-states, while in other areas (Boeotia, Thessaly, Laconia, or Sparta, Argolis) primitive agriculture and cattle breeding dominated.

The content of agrarian relations in almost all Greek policies is the struggle between large and small landowners. In the 4th century. BC e. The three-field system in agriculture is partially introduced and fertilizers are used. Among the implements of agricultural production, a harrow with wooden teeth, a threshing board and a roller appeared. The beginnings of ancient agronomy emerge as a systemic generalization practical experience ancient agriculture (agronomic treatise of Theophrastus).

In the most fertile areas of Greece, agriculture developed with a predominance of grain crops: wheat, barley, spelt. In the infertile areas of European Greece, gardens, vineyards, and olive groves were planted. The islands of Chios, Lesbos, Rhodes and Thasos were the birthplace of the best wines in Greece. The population of Boeotia, Etolia, Arcadia and other regions was engaged in cattle breeding (cattle, horses, donkeys, mules, goats, sheep, pigs).

In agriculture, the labor of slaves and conquered populations was widely used.

The main organizational unit of handicraft production in Greece was a small slave-owning workshop - er-gasterium, where slave owners sometimes worked along with slaves. The tool was primitive, elements of the technical division of labor were absent.

Metal mining and processing played an important role in the Greek economy. Coin production, the manufacture of utensils and jewelry from non-ferrous metals were of great importance in metallurgy.

Slave labor was widely used in mining and construction. The most important branch of Athenian craft was the production of ceramic products, which were one of the export goods.

Spinning and weaving in Greece in the 5th century. BC e. did not become an independent craft and remained mainly home-based industries. However, there were special fulling workshops in Athens.

The growth of the military-political power of Athens contributed to the development of shipbuilding. The construction of the navy was supervised by the state.

After the Greco-Persian wars, the development of commodity production and commodity circulation accelerated. The Greek states gained freedom of trade and navigation over a large area of the Mediterranean basin. Greek cities with a high level of handicraft production - Miletus, Corinth, Chalkis, as well as the island of Aegina - became centers of maritime trade. In the middle of the 5th century. BC e. The largest trading harbor on the Aegean Sea was the Athenian port of Piraeus, whose trade was mainly of an intermediary nature: goods were resold here and sent to their destination.

Internal trade in Ancient Greece was very limited due to the mountainous nature of the terrain, poor condition of roads, the almost complete absence of navigable rivers, and constant wars between Greek policies. Domestic trade was carried out mainly by small dealers and peddlers.

During major festivals, special fairs were held at churches. Fairs at the Pan-Greek Temple of Apollo in Delphi were very popular.

Money in the ancient Greek economy, on the one hand, was an intermediary of trade transactions, and on the other hand, it itself served as an object of trade. Money trading (usury) was widespread in Greece in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e. Usury was carried out by the owners of money changers (trapes) - trapezites. The role of bankers in financial transactions The Greek world was played by temples, where huge funds flowed in the form of gifts and donations. The temples carried out lending operations, lending not only to individuals, but also to entire Greek policies.

So, the economy of ancient Greece was characterized by relatively developed commodity production and commodity circulation. The basis of the ancient Greek economy was the exploitation of slaves. However, the heyday of Ancient Greece was also a period of gestation of deep and acute internal contradictions generated by the slave system. The ruined small producers, who replenished the lumpen proletariat, demanded food. Internal contradictions were resolved through external conquests through wars. The clash between Athens and Sparta, which led to the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), weakened Athens and its allied states. Macedonia took advantage of the defeat of Athens and the weakening of the Greek states.

In the 4th century. BC e. The Greek states were conquered by Alexander the Great, who founded a huge empire with its capital in Babylon. Lacking a strong economic base, the empire of A. the Great fell apart after his death. Nevertheless, the wars of this period were of great historical significance: thanks to them, a certain synthesis took place, a merging of ancient and eastern forms of slavery and cultures. Alexander the Great made an attempt to introduce a unified monetary system and encouraged the restoration of irrigation agriculture in the East. Many new cities arose. Wars and the need to improve military technology, especially shipbuilding, gave impetus to the development of various new crafts, science, and agriculture. Rudimentary forms of a three-field crop rotation system appeared, agricultural tools were improved, and agronomic knowledge began to be widely used. Water supply and sewerage systems were built in cities, and streets were paved.

The natural nature of production, the lack of economic community and the internal contradictions of the slave system led to the collapse of the empire. In the II century. BC e. Rome made an attempt to create a world power.

Greece is a unitary state located in the southern part of Europe. The latest estimates put the country's population at just over 11 million. The Greek Republic occupies an area of 132 thousand square meters. km. Today, the state is experiencing colossal consequences, as a result of which endless strikes, riots, speculation and provocations occur on the streets of large cities.

Description of the country

The capital of Greece is Athens. The main legislative body is Parliament. Since the spring of 2015, Prokopis Pavlopoulos has been the president of the republic. Greece became independent in 1821, separating from the Ottoman Caliphate.

The unitary state is located on Numerous territorial islands fall under the jurisdiction of the country. Greece itself is divided into 13 administrative regions. It is washed by the Thracian, Icarian, Aegean, Cretan, Ionian and Mediterranean seas. Shared land border with countries such as Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey and Macedonia. The population is 98% Orthodox.

Despite its rich cultural and historical heritage, Greece's current position in world politics and economics is becoming more precarious every day. The republic is dominated by the agricultural and industrial sectors. Tourism also plays a significant part in the state's income.

The Birth of the Economy

Ancient Hellas is the name given to ancient settlements that appeared at the beginning of the first millennium BC. e. on the coast and In those days, the most developed civilizations were Rome and Greece. The economy was based on the slave system. It was private property that was the foundation economic activity.

And statehood was formed gradually with the development of democratic institutions. Initially, Hellas was an aristocratic republic. The economy of Ancient Greece was completely dependent on the economic activities of the policies, which were formed as a result of communal decomposition. Each such city united the property of all aristocrats. Members of the pole had political and civil rights. They laid the foundation for monetary and commodity relations.

The primary sector of the economy was agriculture, such as the cultivation of grapes and olives. Next came livestock breeding (sheep, goats, etc.). Craftsmen and farmers were engaged in trade. Even in those ancient times, the lands of Hellas were rich in such useful resources as copper, silver, gold, lead and marble.

Development of modern economy

Heyday financial indicators dates back to 1996. So GNP amounted to about 120 billion dollars. Per person per year it turns out to be $11.5 thousand. Then by dynamic indicators profitability growth among leaders European countries It was just Greece. The republic's economy at that time was based on successful agriculture and industry. The share of these industries was more than 55%. The remaining percentage was divided between service sectors and taxes from tourism organizations. Unemployment did not exceed 11%.

The beginning of the 21st century was marked for the country by serious financial changes. They were suddenly drawn to Greece foreign investors. On the one hand, this stabilized the economy and closed gaps in some important areas. With another - national system had to adapt to Western integration. As a result, Greece began to systematically concede to its partners in the European Union. Only multi-billion dollar loans from American, Italian, French, Swiss and German banks helped maintain capital.

Nevertheless, the main characteristic of the Greek economy by sector remained virtually unchanged. GDP from agriculture is 8.3%, from the industrial zone - up to 27.3%, from services - over 64.4%. At the same time, citizens’ needs for liquid fuel are met only through imports.

General economic indicators

Greece has long been considered one of the most agriculturally developed powers in Europe. The country's economy in this equivalent surpasses even some of the primary EU members. The only disadvantage that slows down the industrial development of Greece is average level production.

Government sector provides slightly less than half of GDP. This is achieved thanks to a well-developed trade and banking system. They also bring their share of income Insurance companies, and tourist. As far as industry is concerned, Lately the most profitable are the textile, petrochemical, food and metallurgical industries. In turn, railway communications are poorly developed, which cannot be said about air and sea transport.

In general, the Greek economy is briefly characterized by two components: the stagnation of the banking system and the slow GDP growth. It is worth noting that about 20% money turnover occupy shadow tranches.

Industry and Agriculture

The country's sectoral structure is developed unevenly and disproportionately throughout the territory. But in the field of light industry, Greece is again one of the main powers. The country's economy is replenished from this industry by almost 19%. At the same time, more than 21% of the population is involved in light industry.

Mining of nickel emery, magnesite, and pyrite is actively underway. Steel production, mechanical engineering, and woodworking are widely developed. The textile industry is considered a priority. Shipping is important for the economy.

Agriculture is based on private farming associations. Thanks to them, the Greek economy is replenished annually by 7%, which is about $16 billion. The agricultural spectrum includes livestock farming, farming and fishing. Today, 41% of the country's land is occupied by pastures, another 39% by forests and arable land.

Tourist yield

About 20 million visitors visit Greece every year. Tourists bring more than 15% of GDP to the state treasury.

The most frequently visited places are the beaches. Sunbathing and swimming lovers come every summer to Athens, Chora, Heraklion, Thessaloniki and other large resort cities. Islands such as Rhodes, Crete, Santorini, Peloponnese, and Mykonos also attract tourists with their beauty and unimaginable atmosphere of harmony. It would not be out of place to mention the numerous cruise tours in the Mediterranean Sea.

However, in the last couple of years there has been a significant outflow of tourists. In the first half of 2015 alone, there were 22% fewer of them than predicted. Thus, the Greek economy lost about $6.8 billion.

Many tourists note that recently it has been more profitable to go on vacation to Crimea, Bulgaria or Turkey. There the prices are more loyal and the quality of services is better.

Debt crisis

Investments are growing inexorably every year. Today the state's income is more than 450 billion euros. This amount exceeds annual GDP by almost 2 times. It turns out that in such a once successful country as Greece, the economy is hanging by a thread.

According to experts, the total debt by 2018 could reach 600 billion euros. This is an unprecedented case that has puzzled not only the Greek banking system, but also European associations. Naturally, the country does not have dividends even for the minimum repayment of debt.

The Greek government hastily began offering large investors loyal privatization programs. However, this will only delay the inevitable. The country has already entered into default.

Causes of the financial crisis

The Greek economy today is at a stage of stagnation. In January 2015, a new Government was formed in the country. The ministers' task was to find alternative ways to stabilize the economy without the help of the European Central Bank.

In March 2015, Greece refused to pay the debt, seeking in a harsh form its partial write-off. In June, the International Monetary Fund stopped all transactions with Athens. Progress could not be achieved with the European Central Bank either. Moreover, at the beginning of July the Government supported the results of the referendum on the refusal of EU assistance. Thus, the Greek economy today is a deep default, a way out of which will not be found soon.

Credit assistance

A slim chance of stabilizing the crisis situation is the acceptance of the terms of the European Commission. The organization is ready to provide Greece with a short-term loan of 7 billion euros. This will help temporarily lift the country out of default. However, this amount will need to be repaid before October. current year inclusive.

Along with the loan to Greece, other conditions were set that will be approved by a special EU commission.

By latest news It becomes clear that Alexis Tsipras's party and the majority of parliamentarians voted to approve the deal with the EU. Now Greece will have a chance for a partial economic recovery.

So, class society and the state were formed in the ancient world in a different and independent way from the countries of the Ancient East. The slave system that developed in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome differed significantly from ancient Eastern slavery both in the relatively higher level of development of productive forces and in more mature slave-owning production relations.

Since Ancient Greece did not represent a single state, we present the following periodization of the economic history of Ancient Greece:

Crete-Mycenaean period (XIX-XII centuries BC);
Homeric period (XII-VIII centuries BC);
the era of colonization and the formation of slave states (VIII-VI centuries BC);
the heyday of ancient Greece (VI-IV centuries BC);
Hellenistic period (III-II centuries BC).

The basis of the economy of Crete was agriculture. In Crete, at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. they used the plow and grew wheat, barley, beans, lentils, peas, flax, and saffron. The Cretans were already good gardeners and were famous for their harvests of olives and grapes, figs and dates. Cattle breeding (cattle and small cattle, pigs, poultry) was also developed in Crete. The main occupation of most Cretans was fishing.

The Cretans conducted brisk trade with many countries and regions of the Mediterranean: Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Sicily, Cyprus, the Black Sea regions, southern France and Italy.

Since the 15th century. BC e. the decline of the Cretan slave society begins. Slavery in the Mycenaean era had not yet acquired much development. Slaves were not yet a class.

Under the influence of property stratification, clans began to split into large patriarchal families with hereditary private land ownership, which later grew into private land ownership.

Communities of the Homeric period settled in fortified cities, the economy of which was based on agriculture and pastoralism (horse breeding, pig breeding), and cattle breeding. Crafts had not yet separated from agriculture, and product exchange was still in its infancy (exchange of surplus).

Slavery was patriarchal. There was no disdain for work: even tribal leaders herded livestock and plowed. Slave labor was used little. In general, this is a period of gradual formation of economic prerequisites for the formation of classes and the state.

The positions of the leader of the tribe - basileus (king), elders of clans and their associations were transformed from elected into hereditary ones, although the functions of these persons were limited only to military and judicial power.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The first slave-holding city-states (policies) began to form.

At this time, crafts were finally separated from agriculture. Mining, blacksmithing, foundry, shipbuilding, ceramic production, trade began to develop, and minted coins appeared. Under the influence of the development of productive forces and trade, the ancient Greeks began to conquer and colonize new lands, which were carried out in three main directions:

to the northeast, i.e. to the Black Sea;
to the west, to Sicily and the south of the Apennine Peninsula;
south to Egypt and the coast of North Africa.

The occupation of the Spartiates was war, and in peacetime - continuous and tireless preparation for it. Physical labor was considered a humiliating task. The perieki, who paid taxes to the Spartan state, were engaged in crafts and trade.

In terms of economic development, Sparta was one of the most backward states of Ancient Greece. The main branches of the economy were primitive agriculture and cattle breeding. The labor force was slaves who cultivated grapes, olives, barley, wheat and other crops. Crafts and trade were in their infancy. Sparta is characterized by a complete underdevelopment of exchange and monetary circulation: instead of money, the Spartans circulated iron plates, which were not accepted in neighboring regions.

Agriculture in Athens was undeveloped due to infertility of the soil. Food was purchased in exchange for handicrafts. In the middle of the 5th century. BC e. Athens, exploiting other Greek states, reached its greatest prosperity. They became the political and economic center of all of Greece, becoming a trading city of world importance. The Athenian port of Piraeus dominated trade throughout the Mediterranean. The products of Greek cities were exported through Piraeus - wines, olive oil, various handicrafts, and metals.

Goods arrived in Piraeus from many countries: iron and copper from Italy, bread from Sicily and the Black Sea region, ivory from Africa, spices and luxury goods from the countries of the East. The grain trade was under state control. Slaves were a major import. The main means of replenishing the labor force for Greek policies at this time was the slave trade.

Along with trade, usury developed, which was carried out by the owners of money changers - trapezites.

Given the variety of coins circulating in the Greek world, money change was important for trade. Trapezites also carried out transfer operations and took money for safekeeping. Large moneylending operations were carried out by temples.

Among the implements of agricultural production, a harrow with wooden teeth, a threshing board and a roller appeared. The beginnings of ancient agronomy emerge as a systematic generalization of the practical experience of ancient agriculture (the agronomic treatise of Theophrastus).

In agriculture, the labor of slaves and conquered populations was widely used.

Metal mining and processing played an important role in the Greek economy. Coin production, the manufacture of utensils and jewelry from non-ferrous metals were of great importance in metallurgy.

Slave labor was widely used in mining and construction. The most important branch of Athenian craft was the production of ceramic products, which were one of the export goods.

Spinning and weaving in Greece in the 5th century. BC e. did not become an independent craft and remained mainly home-based industries. However, there were special fulling workshops in Athens.

The growth of the military-political power of Athens contributed to the development of shipbuilding. The construction of the navy was supervised by the state.

During major festivals, special fairs were held at churches. Fairs at the Pan-Greek Temple of Apollo in Delphi were very popular.

Usury was carried out by the owners of money changers (trapes) - trapezites. The role of bankers in the financial transactions of the Greek world was played by temples, where huge funds flowed in the form of gifts and donations. The temples carried out lending operations, lending not only to individuals, but also to entire Greek policies.

Greece is usually called the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. During this period, bronze tools spread both on the islands of the Aegean Sea and on the mainland, helping to accelerate economic development and the creation of the first states. During the 3rd millennium BC. the most developed were the Cyclades islands, located in the southern Aegean Sea. From the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The island of Crete, located at the intersection of ancient sea routes, becomes the most influential among others. The Cretan (or Minoan) civilization reached its peak around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.

Development of mainland Greece in the 3rd millennium BC. did not proceed at such a rapid pace, but in some coastal areas already in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. Quite developed cultures emerge. At the end of the 3rd millennium BC. Greek tribes (Achaeans) moved from Northern Greece to the south, who in most areas displaced the pre-Greek population (Pelasgians) and by the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. created their own states, which flourished in the 15th-13th centuries. BC, and from the 14th century. BC. the most influential among them was the city of Mycenae in Argolis (northeast of the Peloponnese peninsula).

Around the 12th century. BC. A new wave of settlers is approaching from the north of the Balkan Peninsula, the leading role among which was played by the Greek tribe of the Dorians. Most of the centers of Achaean culture were destroyed.

During the 3rd millennium BC. Metallurgy and ceramic production have achieved significant success since approximately the 23rd century. BC. The potter's wheel began to be used. In agriculture, the leading position is occupied by the so-called Mediterranean triad: cereals (especially barley), grapes, olives. Most active in the 3rd and first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The Greek islands developed, where maritime trades, trade, and crafts, including artistic ones, were of particular importance. Cycladic sailors maintained contacts with lands located in the basins of the Aegean and Adriatic seas, reaching the shores of Spain and the Danube.

The Archaic period is characterized by two main processes that had a decisive influence on the development of Greek civilization: (1) The Great Colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, and Azov Seas, (2) the formation of a policy! as a special type of community.

From a natural type of economy to a commercial one. In the XI-IX centuries. BC. In the Greek economy, the natural type of economy dominated; crafts were not separated from agriculture. As before, the main agricultural crops were grains (barley, wheat), grapes, olives. Irrigation systems were still created and soil manure was used. There was some improvement in the tools of labor; a plow with a metal (especially iron) coulter appeared. Livestock also played an important role in agriculture, with livestock considered one of the main forms of wealth. There was some differentiation in the crafts of this period; weaving, metallurgy, and ceramics were especially developed, but production, as in agriculture, was focused only on meeting the immediate needs of people. In this regard, trade developed very slowly and was mainly of an exchange nature.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC. economic situation in Ancient Greece changed significantly. During this period, crafts separated from agriculture, which remained the leading sector of the economy. The weak development of agricultural production at the previous stage and the inability to provide food to the growing population of the policies became one of the main reasons for Greek colonization. The most important function of the colonies located in the Black Sea basin was to supply the metropolises with bread. In many Greek city-states, they abandoned the cultivation of grain, and the main attention was paid to crops, the cultivation of which was more consistent with the natural conditions of Greece: grapes, olives, all kinds of vegetable and horticultural crops. As a result, agriculture begins to become increasingly market-oriented, which is also facilitated by the wider distribution of iron tools.

Handicraft production also acquired a commercial character, and, as in agriculture, Greek colonization played an important role in this, contributing to the expansion of the raw material base and the development of trade. Many Greek city policies are becoming large craft centers, with artisan quarters appearing in them. In Chalkis, Miletus, Corinth, Argos, and Athens, metallurgy was especially developed, the improvement of which in the archaic era was facilitated by the discovery of iron soldering and bronze casting techniques. Important centers of ceramic production were Corinth and Athens, here from the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC. Serial production begins. The Greek cities of Asia Minor, as well as Megara, were famous for the production of textiles.

Greek trade developed very actively during the era of Great Colonization. Constant connections were established between the metropolises, which exported mainly handicraft products, and the colonies, which supplied various types of raw materials (especially metal, timber) and agricultural products (especially grain). In addition, the colonies become intermediaries between Greece and the distant barbarian periphery. In the most developed Greek policies, maritime trade became one of the most important sectors of the economy, from the end of the 6th century. BC. Navklers, the owners and captains of merchant ships, begin to play a significant role.

During the Dark Ages, land was the property of the territorial community, the main production unit was the oikos (from the Greek house) - the household of the patriarchal family. Each family included in the community was assigned a plot of land, passed on by inheritance; however, it is possible that land redistributions were carried out from time to time. Slavery in the XI-IX centuries. BC. still had a patriarchal character, the main producer was the free farmer.

The archaic period brought great changes to property relations. The leading form of land ownership became polis (or ancient) - only citizens had the right to own land on the territory of the polis; personally free people who were not citizens (megeks) did not have this right. Citizens could sell land and rent it out.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC. An important change also occurs in the organization of production - slavery of the classical type begins to form. This process was associated with the development of commodity production and a significant increase in the number of slaves - foreigners coming from the colonies. Cheap slave labor made it possible to obtain greater income and was more actively used in the main industries.

At the turn of the 2nd-1st millennium BC. Due to the predominance of subsistence farming and the weak development of trade, there was no money as such; its role was played mainly by cattle. During the era of the Great Colonization, metal ingots and bars were increasingly used as money, and finally, around the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC. coin minting begins. By the 6th century BC. In Greece, there were two main monetary systems - the Aeginean and the Euboean. The basis of each system was talent - a weight unit, which on Euboea was 26.2 kg, and on Aegina - 37 kg. One talent was minted into 6 thousand drachmas - silver coins. The Aeginian standard was distributed over most of the territory of Greece and the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Euboean standard - on the island of Euboea, in many western Greek colonies, as well as in the two largest policies - Corinth and Athens.

During the archaic period, along with money circulation Usury developed, and insolvent debtors, as a rule, were turned into slaves and could even be sold abroad.

The main distinctive feature of the Greek polis was the participation of all members of the civil community in government, and this feature largely determined domestic policy policies. In particular, many Greek city-states had laws that limited the acquisition and sale of land and aimed at protecting land ownership individual citizens. However, despite this, in most parts of Greece the development of commodity production and land shortages led to the growth of large landownership, increased social differentiation and an intensification of the conflict between the aristocracy and the demos (the people). In many policies of the archaic era, socio-political conflicts often ended in the establishment of tyranny - a regime of personal power. In most cases, tyrants sought to enlist the support of the demos, took care of improving its position, promoted the development of crafts and trade, and the improvement of cities. However, the tyrants were constantly in need of money and siphoned it out of the population in various ways; in the end, in most policies, tyranny was overthrown.

Ancient Greek legislators Salon and Lycurgus

Reforms carried out in the archaic era played an important role in the further socio-political and economic development of Greece. The most famous and interesting reforms were in Athens and Sparta, which most clearly represented the two main types of policies - trade and craft and agrarian.

One of the largest Athenian reformers, Solon, was a politician and poet, considered one of the seven Greek sages. In 594 BC. Solon was endowed with emergency powers and began reforms aimed at restoring the unity of the civil collective. First of all, he carried out seisakhteia (Greek: shaking off the burden): all debts made on the security of the land and the interest accrued on them were declared invalid. Slavery for debt was abolished, debtor Athenians sold abroad were redeemed at the expense of the state. Seisakhteya, as well as laws prohibiting the acquisition of land above a certain norm, prevented the ruin of the peasants and contributed to the development of mainly medium and small landownership in Attica. To facilitate Athens' trade with Asia Minor and the western Mediterranean, weights and measures were unified, and the previously dominant Aeginetan coinage system was replaced by the lighter Euboean one. Measures were also taken to enhance the marketability of agriculture: the development of horticultural crops was encouraged, and the export of olive oil abroad was allowed. Much attention was also paid to craft: in particular, it was established that if the father did not teach his son any craft, he could not claim filial support in old age. In addition, the export of raw materials was prohibited; Foreign master craftsmen were attracted to Athens; many metics engaged in crafts were granted Athenian citizenship.

Important transformations of Solon, indicating the achievement high level commodity-money relations in Athens VII-VI centuries. BC, there was the introduction of freedom of wills and the replacement of family privileges with property ones: depending on land income all citizens were divided into four categories.

In Sparta, Lycurgus was considered the legendary legislator who laid the foundations of the state system. Land in Sparta was actually state property, allotments individual families were inalienable, their number changed only with the annexation of new territories, in particular, with the conquest of Messenia - a rich region in the southwest of the Peloponnese peninsula - at the turn of the VM-VI centuries. BC. The land was redistributed: approximately nine thousand plots were allocated according to the number of citizens. The land was cultivated by the helots attached to it - the population of Laconia and Messenia conquered by the Spartans, turned into state slaves. The helots annually paid the owner of the allotment a fixed rent in kind.

The citizens of Sparta were considered equal to each other in everything - both in everyday life, and in politics, and in economic sphere. Lycurgus is credited with establishing a ban on the use of gold and silver coins; only extremely inconvenient and bulky iron coins were allowed. The main occupation of the Spartans was military affairs; crafts and trade were considered shameful for a citizen. These activities were left to the perieci - deprived of political rights, but personally free residents of Laconia. The Spartan system practically did not change for several centuries (until the 4th century BC) and caused the economic and cultural lag of this policy from others.

Greek economy of the 1st classical period (V-IV centuries BC)

5th century BC - the time of the highest rise of Greek civilization. During this period, classical slavery was finally formalized and the polis reached its peak. A huge role in the development of Greece was played by the victory in the Greco-Persian Wars (500-449 BC), which for a time turned Athens into the leading state of the Greek world. The last decades of the century were marked by the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) between eternal opponents - Athens and Sparta, which accelerated the development of commodity-money relations and contributed to the beginning of the crisis of the polis in the 4th century. BC.

In the 5th century BC. coinage spanned the entire Greek world. As a result of development retail At this time, the minting of bronze small change coins begins. All independent Greek policies enjoyed the right to mint their own coins, so it is not surprising that the development of trade in the 5th century. BC. brought to life a special profession of money changers (trapezites). Gradually (mainly from the end of the 5th century BC), money changers began to perform some of the functions characteristic of banks: storing money, transferring various amounts from one client’s account to another, issuing cash loans. The usual loan interest secured by land or a city house was about 15%; for maritime loans (secured by more unreliable collateral of ships and goods) it could exceed 30%. Trapezites also performed some of the functions of notary offices - they concluded transactions, drew up bills of sale, and stored documents.

In most Greek policies there was no organized state economy that brought constant and significant income; there was no direct taxation of citizens. The lack of a stable source of replenishment of the state treasury was partly compensated by voluntary donations and liturgies - taxes from rich citizens for the needs of the state. During wars, a military emergency was levied on all citizens tax - euphora. Many policies had other sources of replenishment of the treasury. Yes, in Athens government revenues were replenished from the Lavrion silver mines. For example, during the Greco-Persian Wars in 482 BC. Themisto (524-459 BC) proposed to build warships using the income from the mines. Subsequently, these mines were rented out to private individuals - citizens of Athens.

Bread supply was the most important issue economic policy most Greek city states. Special officials took care of the uninterrupted supply of grain, and special standards for its transit were established. At the end of the 5th century. BC. in many policies, commissions were elected from the richest citizens for the purchase and distribution of grain among citizens. In some cases, similar regulation also applied to building materials, firewood, flax, oil, etc.

To maintain order in domestic markets, many policies appointed special officials- agoranomy (market caretakers), who collected duties, monitored the quality of products, the correctness of weights and measures, etc.

Policy crisis. Land relations

In connection with the crisis of the policy, significant changes occurred in the field of slavery. Since the Peloponnesian War, the number of Greek slaves has been increasing, which was previously almost unthinkable. In addition, as it is more profitable, the practice of releasing slaves on quitrent is becoming more and more widespread. The number of freedmen - slaves who managed to save money and buy their freedom - increases sharply. In general, in the 4th century. BC. classical slavery continues to develop, the number of slaves increases.

The crisis of the Greek polis in the 4th century. BC. was not associated with economic decline. On the contrary, crisis phenomena, starting with changes in the land relations fundamental to the policy, are closely related to the development of commodity-money relations, the desire for enrichment, the development of inter-policy economic ties. It was these processes that contributed to the weakening of the close connection between the citizen and his polis, created the preconditions for the development of contradictions between private and state interests, for the clash of various social groups within the civil collective.

The loss of close polis unity became one of the important reasons Greece's loss of independence and its subjugation in 338 BC. Philip of Macedon, whose son and heir, Alexander, created in the 30-20s of the 4th century. BC. the largest world power of antiquity. From that time on, the poleis ceased to be the leading force in the Greek world, and were replaced by Hellenistic monarchies.

The power of Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) after his death broke up into a number of states: the Greco-Macedonian kingdom; Egypt, ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty; the Seleucid state, the central core of which was Syria and Mesopotamia; Pergamon and Pontic kingdoms in Asia Minor, etc. In these Hellenistic states there was a synthesis of Greek (Hellenic) and eastern elements; this applied to the economic, socio-political, and cultural spheres.

The development of the economy during the Hellenistic era was favorably influenced by the transformation of the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea into the inland sea of the Greek world. In addition, in most Hellenistic states it was preserved monetary system, the unification of which began under Alexander the Great: the weight standard adopted in Athens was taken as a basis, and gold coins began to be minted along with silver coins.

A very important role in economic development was played by the exchange of experience between the Greeks and eastern peoples, which contributed to the improvement of agricultural techniques, the cultivation of new crops, as well as the development of technology and further specialization in crafts. All this had a huge impact on the growth of marketability and the increase in trade turnover.

During the Hellenistic era the center economic life moved from mainland Greece and the Aegean Sea to the south and east, where many new cities were founded on the coasts of the seas and on caravan routes. Large trade and craft centers were Alexandria in the Nile Delta in Egypt, Pergamum in the north-west of Asia Minor, Antiochia on the Orontes River in Syria, Seleucia on the Tigris River in Mesopotamia, etc. In the 4th-2nd centuries. BC. Hellenistic city-states experienced an era of prosperity.

Cities were administrative units, in most cases they retained self-government bodies, and lands owned by the city and private individuals were assigned to them. The rest of the land fund was considered state: there were the royal lands themselves, as well as lands granted to the king’s associates, to churches, and transferred to the holding of soldiers.

Classical slavery gradually spread in the Hellenistic states, but along with it there was debt slavery, characteristic of the Eastern economy. In agriculture, the number of slaves increased, but the land was mainly cultivated by members of rural communities who were more or less dependent on the state. In the craft, along with private ones, there were workshops, whose workers also depended on the state.

Ancient Greece was formed on the ground prepared by the historical development of the ancient Eastern states.

By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The crisis of slaveholding relations in the Middle East has reached its extreme. Economic centers are moving to the west. The commercial hegemony of Babylon was replaced by the flourishing trade of the Phoenicians and then the Greeks.

Geographically, Greece was in a more advantageous position than Egypt and Babylonia, because trade routes were open to the Greeks in all directions. Construction Materials were also available in abundance (marble, clay).

The early collapse of the rural community played a huge role in the economic development of Greece. Therefore, it did not become a brake on the development of productive forces. The development of small-scale production has gone further than in the countries of the Ancient East.

In Greece, more favorable conditions developed for the spread of slavery. The production and appropriation of surplus product served as the economic basis for the rise of Greece.

Archaeological excavations show that as early as the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC. in the Aegean basin there was a rich and complex culture that stood at the level of the cultural achievements of ancient Eastern societies of that time and was in close connection with them. This was the so-called Krito-Mycenaean culture. Mainland Greece at this time lagged far behind Crete in economic and cultural development.

At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. this culture fell into decline. The period following this (XII - XIII centuries BC) is called the Homeric period, because it is known to historians mainly from Homer’s works “Iliad” and “Odyssey”.

That period was also characterized by a communal system, so it is considered more primitive than the period of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture. The economy was subsistence. But the process of disintegration of the community had already begun, which was expressed in the development of private property, property inequality, the formation of a nobility, and the emergence of slavery in its patriarchal forms. Endless wars accelerated this process.

From the 8th century BC. A new period began in the history of Ancient Greece, which lasted two or three centuries and is rightfully called transitional.

This period was characterized by the rapid development of productive forces, the collapse of communities, the formation of cities, the creation of overseas colonies, and the extraordinary expansion of trade and exploitation of slaves. The formation of a slave regime took place, the dominance of which subsequently determined the fate of ancient Greece.

Agricultural production used a two-field system, the land was fertilized and plowed three times. Barley was mainly cultivated. But besides this, they sowed spelt and wheat, cultivated olive crops (olive oil), and developed horticulture and gardening. Much more important were the successes in the development of industrial production:

invention of a method for soldering iron, development of foundry. Developed
iron ore deposits, the production of gold, silver, and tin increased.

Weaving and dyeing production rose to a new level, and the production of colored fabrics expanded. The Greeks switched from wooden buildings to stone ones. Shipbuilding developed. The specialization of artisans has increased.

The liquidation of communal farming led to the landlessness of the peasantry. These peasants, in search of work, rushed to trading towns and seaside harbors, becoming artisans, sailors, day laborers, and small traders. This process accelerated the development of cities, which became important economic centers. Individual cities become independent states. A Greek polis, or city-state of a republican type, emerges, one of the most characteristic phenomena of antiquity.

Greece was not a single state, but consisted of many small states.

The polis as a collective of citizens had the right of supreme ownership of land. Only a citizen of the polis could be the owner of the land. Main economic principle The policy was the idea of self-sufficiency (autarky). Surplus product could only be provided to the citizens of the policy by slaves who were mined during the war. Therefore, the ancient economic system was based primarily on military organization: the army was, in fact, a militia, because Every citizen of the policy, regardless of origin, was obliged to serve military service. In Ancient Greece there were two types of policies (and therefore two types of political and economic organization societies), which are conventionally called Athenian and Spartan.

In addition to Athens, the Athenian type included Corinth, Megara, Miletus, Rhodes and a number of others. These were trade and craft states with developed commodity-money relations, with the widespread use of slave labor in handicraft production and a democratic structure. They were usually located on the sea coast, had a small agricultural area, but a large population. It was these policies that were the leading economic centers of Greece: Athens was the economic capital of Greece; in Corinth, shipbuilding, the production of weapons, ceramics, and luxury goods received significant development; Miletus was an important center for cloth making. The main unit of craft production were ergasteria - workshops different sizes using slave labor. The equipment was manual, labor productivity was low. There was also a contemptuous attitude towards handicraft work. Leatherworking and the butcher's craft were considered especially humiliating. Therefore, the craft was the lot of freedmen or meteks (newcomers). Athenian slavery was (unlike Egyptian or Roman) primarily commercial. Unlike the countries of the Ancient East, debt slavery did not develop. But at the same time, there was paternal right, which allowed the father to sell his slutty daughter. Other policies of the Athenian type allowed the sale of sons.

There was no monopoly of the nobility on slavery. Any citizen could buy a slave. Private slavery prevailed. State slavery did not develop as in the ancient Eastern states, because there was no need for irrigation construction. State slaves, unlike private ones, could start a family and have some property.

Polis of the Athenian type were characterized by the predominant use of slaves in handicraft production. Slaves were rented out as income property; transferred to quitrent.

The second type of policies was the so-called Spartan. In addition to Sparta, it was typical for Arcadia, Boeotia, and Thessaly. This is an agrarian type, with the absolute predominance of agriculture, the weak development of trade, crafts and commodity-money relations and, as a rule, an aristocratic structure.

Spartan slavery was closer to Egyptian and Roman than to Athenian. The main source of slaves was wars. Slavery itself was terrorist. In terms of forms of ownership, this type was also closer to the Egyptian one, because land and slaves were considered public property (first communal, then state).

The main use of slaves was agriculture. The economy was subsistence.

Originally slaves in Sparta in their own way social status were close to serfs. The slave was attached to the land, could have a family and paid a quitrent to the slave owner. But gradually, under the influence of Athenian slavery and the onslaught of the commodity economy, the Spartan system collapsed: feudal tendencies were suppressed by slaveholding ones.

The great Greek colonization (from VIII BC) was closely related to the collapse of communities and the formation of policies. Emigration was associated with the dispossession of peasants during the disintegration of the community and the threat of enslavement. Going overseas, the Greeks sought to save their freedom and regain their land. Colonization was stimulated by the ruling circles of metropolitan cities, because provided 080 au1087 with the receipt of valuable raw materials, slaves, and new markets.

The Greeks created many colonies in the northeast, south and west of Greece. Initially, the colonies were agricultural settlements, and then turned into trading posts. Among these colonies was Byzantium (the future capital of Byzantium); Sinop, Tirapezunt, Istria, Olbia, Panticapaeum, Feodosia, Chersonesos (Black Sea coast); Tarentum, Naples (Southern Italy); Syracuse, Nansos, etc. (Sicily); Massilia (on the site of modern Marseille); colonies in Egypt, Libya, etc.

Such a wide scope of colonization expanded the economic periphery of Greece, opened up huge economic opportunities. The exploitation of other peoples intensified, and trade began to develop more intensively.

In 480 BC. Greece won the war with Persia, which was facilitated by the partial unification of the country (481 BC) - a military alliance of 31 policies arose, initially under the leadership of Sparta, and four years later - Athens.

During this period of time, in economically developed regions, agriculture lost its former role, continuing to be a base in economically backward regions (Boeotia, Thessaly, Sparta, etc.). Life centers of economically developed regions of Greece in the 5th century. BC. were in cities.

It was the city that dominated the agricultural periphery and made it possible to exploit neighboring peoples. Craft production and trade were concentrated in the cities.

In the 5th century BC. Greek cities were connected to the markets of the Mediterranean, the Aegean and Black Seas. The lifeblood of Greek trade was its close connection with the colonies. The country did not have enough of its own bread, and grain was imported in large quantities. Raw materials for handicraft production (ship timber, leather, wool) were also purchased.

There was a professional merchant class; wholesalers were opposed to retailers. Certain forms of trade organization were developed. There was a market in every city. Trade was carried out in special market premises, shops, but mostly in the open air.

There was a special administration to supervise trade, and speculation was persecuted, especially in grain.

Greece was characterized by a predominance foreign trade. Natural conditions, the imperfection and high cost of land transport and poor roads made the use of sea transport more profitable. The development of sea routes opened up great opportunities for Greek merchants.

Traders-wholesalers created merchant associations - fias, the main tasks of which were: mutual insurance and loan proceeds, information exchange, and price control.

The wide scope of foreign trade, often of an intermediary nature, allowed the Greeks to exploit other peoples through unequal exchange.

The maturity of Greek trade is also evidenced by the developed monetary system.

The unit of account was a silver talent equal to 29 kg (Eubean) and 37 kg (Aeginian). But mostly smaller counting units were used. In the 7th century V

In Greece, the first coins appeared with a strictly defined weight, guaranteed by the state that issued them. Each city minted its own coins.

Gradually, coins from the leading economic centers - Athens and Corinth - emerged. Silver staters of Corinth, weighing 8.7 g, were popular in Western Greece, Southern Italy and Sicily. Athenian tetradrachms weighing 17.5 g and drachms weighing 4.4 g were readily used in the cities of the Aegean basin.

In the 4th century. BC. Copper small change coins appeared - obols, halki and mites. 1 silver drachma was divided into 6 copper obols, 1 obol into 8 halqs, and 1 halq into 2 lepta.

The abundance of various Greek coins and the significant influx of foreign coins as a result of the development of trade required the exchange of one coin for another. Money changers appeared, merchants traded in usury. Gradually the role of the money changer changed. They begin to carry out operations that will later be called banking - determining the exchange rate of coins, exchanging them, storing them, issuing loans at interest (12-18%, and for financing trade expeditions 30%), non-cash payments between wholesale traders. This meant the appearance of special people - trapezites, who were the prototype of bankers.

In the 4th century. BC. Ancient Greece experienced a period of decline and became a victim of the Macedonian conquests. A politically fragmented country faced strong, centralized states and lost. In addition, the intermediary nature of Greek trade made it too dependent on the political situation in neighboring and often distant countries. But the main reason was the crisis of the slave system, which had reached a high level and could no longer develop further.