The largest national catastrophe occurred with the Soviet Union in December 1991 as a result of the Belovezhsky Treaty of Yeltsin, Kravchuk and Shushkevich. The consequences of this for Russia were disastrous.

The USSR lost its name, flag, unifying ideology and half of its territory. Russia is territorially thrown back to the borders of the 16th century.

More than 5 million km2 of territory were lost (approximately a third of the territory of the USSR). The most painful is the loss of Ukraine (52 million people). Russia found itself in the Caucasus within the borders of the early 1800s, in Central Asia - in the mid-1800s, and with the West - approximately as in 1600.

Access to the Baltic has been lost (except for St. Petersburg and Kaliningrad). The loss of such ports as Riga and Tallinn sharply limited Russia's access to the Baltic Sea.

Lost was its dominant position on the Black Sea, where Odessa served as a vital port for trade with the Mediterranean countries and the world. Russia has only a small strip of the Black Sea coast left and is being forced out of Sevastopol. If Russia loses the southern ridge of the Kuril Islands, then it will lose access to the Pacific Ocean, that is, it will completely lose access to the ports through which the main flow of its exports so far goes

- “Shift” of the entire territory to the north and east, which moves Russia away from Western Europe and the Middle East.

Direct land access to Central Western Europe has been lost. The situation is similar with aviation and pipeline communications. Almost all routes leading from Russia have become international.

The Russian people found themselves divided. There are more than 25 million Russians abroad. Every fourth Russian lives outside of Russia.

In the south, Russia is actually forced to play the role of protector of the West from Islamic fundamentalism, which includes Russia in military and other confrontations in Central Asia.

Undeveloped borders (the total length of Russia’s borders is 61 thousand km, which is a distance of one and a half equator).

Destruction of advanced technologies. The number of scientific workers in Russia has decreased by more than three times. The threshold for funding science is considered critically low; domestic industry has to be content with the introduction of foreign technologies that were outdated many years ago.

Total and rapid destruction of the military-industrial complex. In 1998, the United States sold weapons worth 21 billion dollars, and Russia - 2.5 billion. Until recently, Russia's geopolitical security was significantly declining, military structures were destroyed, the infrastructure of military camps, barracks, training grounds, training centers, on the basis of which It was possible to deploy full-blooded formations in a matter of weeks, and it practically disappeared. One of the significant events was the flooding of the Mir station. Baikonur is located on the territory of the independent state of Kazakhstan. Ratification of START II means Russia's refusal to maintain nuclear capabilities at the level of Cold War standards. The United States is withdrawing from the 1972 ABM Treaty and creating a system that is directed against Russia. In the next 10 years, American strategists expect to spend $500 billion on its creation. Funding for this program has actually been carried out since March 2001. If this money is invested in development high technology, then the gap between the United States and its closest pursuers will become insurmountable and at the same time the United States will unload financial pyramid, which will strengthen their economic position.

Population decline. The population of Russia has decreased by almost half in comparison with the USSR: from 278 million to 145, it is decreasing every year by 700-800 thousand people. By 2005, the number of pensioners in Russia will be equal to the number of workers. Currently, twice as many people die in Russia than are born, and this proportion continues to grow.

Reduction of national production. For the 90s has halved in years Patriotic War by a quarter. Agricultural land has been halved. Russia's share in world GDP decreased from 4.5% in 1990 to 1.8% in 1995. In 1996, capital investment in fixed assets amounted to only 25.2% of the 1990 level. The export of capital was several times higher than the import in the mid-90s. ranged from 8 to 50 billion dollars per year, and irrevocably. In his spring message (2001) to the Federal Assembly, President Putin stated a fact: 21 billion dollars are siphoned out of Russia every year. According to the UN, as of July 2000, the Russian Federation ranked 71st in the world in terms of the integral indicator (in July 1991 – 24th) . After the default, the import rate dropped from 52% to 40-45%.

Regional separatism. Economic, cultural, social connections. Under conditions of absolute centralization of power, these consequences were smoothed out. But in transition period the solution of pressing socio-economic issues was shifted to the regions. Regional separatism was fueled by other factors: a) the presence of more than 20 faiths; b) the diversity of ethnic groups, many of which considered themselves within the region as an independent group with a special ethnic identity; c) various aspects of historical memory that are consciously introduced into the public consciousness, d) real differences in the level of socio-economic development of regions. e) support for separatists from abroad. Western geopoliticians plan to divide Russia into 3–6 independent state entities: Western Russia, the Urals, Western Siberia, Eastern Siberia, Far East and Northern Territories. Almost all “national republics” should receive state independence - Tataria, Bashkiria, Ossetia, Chechnya, etc.

Reasons for the collapse

Currently, there is no common point of view among historians on the reasons for the collapse of the USSR and on the possibility of preventing it.

Possible reasons include the following:

• · subversive activities of Western countries led by the United States and their agents of influence, which was part of the Cold War;
• · the incompetence of the union leadership, the selfish desire of the leaders of the union republics to get rid of the control of the central authorities and use Gorbachev’s democratic reforms to destroy the foundations of the state and society;
• · monocentrism of decision-making (only in Moscow, the so-called “union center”), which led to inefficiency and loss of time in decision-making and dissatisfaction with regional authorities;
• · centrifugal nationalist tendencies, which, according to some authors, are inherent in every multinational country and manifest themselves in the form of interethnic contradictions and the desire of individual peoples to independently develop their culture and economy;
• · disproportions in the extensive economy (characteristic of the entire existence of the USSR), the consequence of which was a constant shortage of consumer goods, a growing technical gap in all areas of the manufacturing industry (which can only be compensated for in an extensive economy by high-cost mobilization measures, a set of such measures under the general name " Acceleration" was adopted in 1987, but there was no longer any economic opportunity to implement it);
• · unsuccessful attempts to reform the Soviet system, which led to stagnation and then the collapse of the economy, which led to the collapse of the political system);
• crisis of confidence in economic system: in the 1960-1970s, the main way to combat the inevitable shortage of consumer goods in a planned economy was to rely on mass production, simplicity and cheapness of materials; most enterprises worked in three shifts, producing similar products from low-quality materials. The quantitative plan was the only way to evaluate the efficiency of enterprises, quality control was minimized. The result of this was a decline in the quality of consumer goods produced in the USSR. The crisis of confidence in the quality of goods became a crisis of confidence in the entire economic system as a whole;
• · the decline in world oil prices initiated by the American government, which shook the economy of the USSR
• · growing dissatisfaction of the population associated with periodic food shortages (especially during the era of stagnation and Perestroika) and other essential and durable goods (refrigerators, televisions, toilet paper, etc.), bans and restrictions (on size garden plot etc.); constant lag in living standards developed countries the West and unsuccessful attempts to “catch up” with it;
• · The Afghan War, the Cold War, incessant financial assistance to the countries of the socialist camp, and the development of the military-industrial complex to the detriment of other areas of the economy ruined the budget.
• · a number of man-made disasters (plane crashes, Chernobyl accident, the crash of the Admiral Nakhimov, gas explosions, etc.) and concealment of information about them;

The possibility of the collapse of the USSR was considered in Western political science (Hélène d'Encausse. "The Divided Empire", 1978) and the journalism of Soviet dissidents (Andrei Amalrik. "Will it exist?" Soviet Union before 1984? ", 1969). A. D. Sakharov saw a way out in the renewal of the Union and developed the Draft Constitution of the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia.

Course of events

Since 1985, General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M.S. Gorbachev and his supporters began the policy of Perestroika; The political activity of the people increased sharply, mass movements and organizations were formed, including radical and nationalist ones. Attempts to reform the management system led to a deepening of the crisis in the country.

General crisis

The collapse of the USSR occurred against the backdrop of a general economic and foreign policy crisis. In 1989, the start of economic crisis in the USSR (economic growth is replaced by decline, see the 1980s in the economy of the USSR).

In the period 1989-1991 it reaches a maximum the main problem Soviet economy - chronic commodity shortage- Almost all basic goods, except bread, disappear from free sale. In almost all regions of the country, rationed supplies in the form of coupons are being introduced.

Recorded for the first time since 1991 demographic crisis(excess of mortality over birth rate).

Refusal to interfere in the internal affairs of other countries entails the massive collapse of pro-Soviet communist regimes in Eastern Europe in 1989. In Poland, former leader of the Solidarity trade union Lech Walesa comes to power (December 9, 1990), in Czechoslovakia - former dissident Vaclav Havel (December 29, 1989). In Romania, unlike other countries of Eastern Europe, the communists were removed by force, and President Nicolae Ceausescu and his wife were shot by a tribunal. Thus, there is an actual collapse of the Soviet sphere of influence that emerged as a result of the Second World War.

Interethnic conflicts

A number of interethnic conflicts are flaring up on the territory of the USSR.

The first manifestation of tension during the Perestroika period was the events in Kazakhstan. On December 16, 1986, a protest demonstration took place in Alma-Ates after Moscow tried to impose its protégé V.G. on the post of First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the KazSSR. Kolbin, who had previously worked as the first secretary of the Ulyanovsk Regional Committee of the CPSU and had nothing to do with Kazakhstan. This demonstration was suppressed by internal troops. Some of its participants “disappeared” or were imprisoned. These events are known as "Zheltoksan".

In June 1989, interethnic clashes broke out in Novy Uzen between Kazakhs and immigrants from the Caucasus, to suppress which armored personnel carriers, tanks, combat helicopters and other military equipment were used. On July 15-16, clashes occurred between Georgians and Abkhazians in Sukhumi.

The Karabakh conflict that began in 1988 was particularly acute. Mutual ethnic cleansing is taking place, the exodus of Armenians from Azerbaijan and Azerbaijanis and Muslim Kurds from Armenia begins. In 1989, the Supreme Council of the Armenian SSR announced the annexation of Nagorno-Karabakh. In the summer of the same year, the Armenian SSR imposed a blockade of the Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, and the Popular Front of Azerbaijan, as a response, declared an economic blockade of all of Armenia. In April 1991, a war actually began between the two Soviet republics.

There are unrest in the Fergana Valley, where several peoples live mixed. At the end of May 1989, relations between Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks worsened in the Fergana region of the Uzbek SSR. In June, mass pogroms and murders of Meskhetian Turks took place there, known as the “Fergana events,” which caused a mass evacuation of Meskhetian Turks from the republic. In May of the following year, a pogrom of Jews and Armenians took place in the Uzbek city of Andijan. A month later, Kyrgyz-Uzbek clashes broke out on the territory of the Kyrgyz SSR (Osh massacre). On ethnic grounds in the city of Baku, the capital of the Azerbaijan SSR, on January 13-20, 1990, riots occurred, accompanied by mass violence against the Armenian population, robberies, murders, arson and destruction of property

The decision to rehabilitate the peoples deported by Stalin leads to increased tension in a number of regions, in particular, in Crimea - between returning Crimean Tatars and Russians, in the Prigorodny region of North Ossetia - between Ossetians and returning Ingush.

Against the background of the general crisis, the popularity of radical democrats led by Boris Yeltsin is growing; it reaches a maximum of two largest cities- Moscow and Leningrad.

Movements in the republics for secession from the USSR and the “parade of sovereignties”

On February 7, 1990, the Central Committee of the CPSU announced the weakening of the monopoly on power, and within a few weeks the first competitive elections were held. Liberals and nationalists won many seats in the parliaments of the union republics.

During 1990-1991, the so-called “Parade of sovereignties”, during which all the union (the RSFSR was one of the first) and many of the autonomous republics adopted Declarations of Sovereignty, in which they challenged the priority of all-union laws over republican ones, which began the “war of laws”. They also took actions to control local economies, including refusals to pay taxes to the union and federal Russian budgets. These conflicts cut off many economic ties, which further worsened the economic situation in the USSR.

The first territory of the USSR to declare independence in January 1990 in response to the Baku events was the Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Before the August putsch, two union republics (Lithuania and Georgia) declared independence, and four more declared their refusal to join the proposed new union and transition to independence: Estonia, Latvia, Moldova, and Armenia.

With the exception of Kazakhstan, none of the Central Asian union republics had organized movements or parties that aimed to achieve independence. Among the Muslim republics, with the exception of the Azerbaijani Popular Front, the independence movement existed only in one of the autonomous republics of the Volga region - the Ittifak party of Fauzia Bayramova in Tatarstan, which since 1989 has advocated the independence of Tatarstan.

Immediately after the events of the State Emergency Committee, independence was declared by almost all the remaining union republics, as well as several autonomous ones outside Russia, some of which later became the so-called. unrecognized states.

Impact in the short term

Transformations in Russia

The collapse of the USSR led to the almost immediate launch of a broad program of reform by Yeltsin and his supporters. The most radical first steps were:

• · V economic field- price liberalization on January 2, 1992, which served as the beginning of " shock therapy";
• · in the political field - the ban on the CPSU and the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (November 1991); liquidation of the Soviet system as a whole (September 21 - October 4, 1993).

Interethnic conflicts

IN last years Since the existence of the USSR, a number of interethnic conflicts have flared up on its territory. After its collapse, most of them immediately went into the phase of armed clashes:

• · Karabakh conflict - the war of the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh for independence from Azerbaijan;
• · Georgian-Abkhaz conflict - conflict between Georgia and Abkhazia;
• · Georgian-South Ossetian conflict - the conflict between Georgia and South Ossetia;
• · Ossetian-Ingush conflict - clashes between Ossetians and Ingush in the Prigorodny region;
• · Civil war in Tajikistan - inter-clan civil war in Tajikistan;
• · The first Chechen war - the struggle of Russian federal forces with separatists in Chechnya;
• · conflict in Transnistria - the struggle of the Moldovan authorities with separatists in Transnistria.

According to Vladimir Mukomel, the number of deaths in interethnic conflicts in 1988-96 is about 100 thousand people. The number of refugees as a result of these conflicts amounted to at least 5 million people.

A number of conflicts have not led to a full-scale military confrontation, but continue to complicate the situation in the territory of the former USSR to this day:

• · friction between the Crimean Tatars and the local Slavic population in Crimea;
• · the situation of the Russian population in Estonia and Latvia;
• · state affiliation of the Crimean peninsula.
• · Collapse of the ruble zone

The desire to isolate themselves from the Soviet economy, which had entered a phase of acute crisis since 1989, pushed the former Soviet republics to introduce national currencies. The Soviet ruble survived only on the territory of the RSFSR, but hyperinflation (in 1992 prices increased 24 times, in the next few years - an average of 10 times per year) almost completely destroyed it, which served as the reason for replacing the Soviet ruble with the Russian one in 1993 . From July 26 to August 7, 1993, a confiscation monetary reform was carried out in Russia, during which money circulation In Russia, treasury notes of the State Bank of the USSR were confiscated. The reform also solved the problem of dividing monetary systems Russia and other CIS countries that used the ruble as a means of payment in domestic money circulation.

During 1992-1993 Almost all union republics are introducing their own currencies. The exception is Tajikistan ( Russian ruble remains in circulation until 1995), unrecognized Transnistrian Moldavian Republic(introduces the Transnistrian ruble in 1994), partially recognized by Abkhazia and South Ossetia (the Russian ruble remains in circulation).

In a number of cases, national currencies come from the coupon system introduced in the last years of the USSR by transforming one-time coupons into constant currency (Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Georgia, etc.).

It should be noted that the Soviet ruble had names in 15 languages ​​- the languages ​​of all union republics.

For some of them, the names of national currencies initially coincided with the national names of the Soviet ruble (karbovanets, manat, rubel, som, etc.)

Collapse of the unified Armed Forces

During the first months of the existence of the CIS, the leaders of the main union republics are considering the issue of forming unified armed forces CIS, however, this process did not develop. The USSR Ministry of Defense functioned as the Main Command of the United Armed Forces of the CIS until the October events of 1993. Until May 1992, after the resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev, the so-called. The nuclear suitcase was in the possession of USSR Defense Minister Yevgeny Shaposhnikov.

The collapse of the USSR, which resulted in the formation of 15 independent republics, is one of the main events of the 20th century.

After all, in a short period of time, one of the two superpowers suddenly ceased to exist. This radically changed the political and economic picture of the world.

In this article we will touch on the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR, and also consider its consequences.

By the way, if you like it at all, then we recommend reading it. Very short and informative.

Date of collapse of the USSR

The official date of the collapse of the USSR is December 26, 1991. It was then that the great empire ended its history.

Brief background

The formation of the Soviet Union as a state occurred in 1922 during the reign of. Then, under , the USSR turned into a superpower.

Moreover, during its existence its borders changed several times. This was due to the fact that the republics that were part of it had the right to secede from the Union.

However, the Soviet government constantly emphasized that the USSR was a friendly family consisting of different nations.

The USSR was led by the Communist Party, which controlled all government bodies.

The final decision about who should lead a particular republic always remained with the central leadership in.

Reasons for the collapse of the USSR

To answer this question, we must consider many factors that led to the collapse of the USSR.

It should be noted that some people accepted the collapse of the Soviet Union with joy and jubilation. This was explained by the fact that many wanted to gain independence and live according to their own laws.

For others, the collapse was a real shock and tragedy. For example, it was especially difficult for communists and people devoted to the ideas of the CPSU to believe what happened.

Let's look at the main reasons why the USSR collapsed:

• Autocracy of government and society in the state, as well as the fight against dissidents;
• Conflicts on ethnic grounds;
• The only correct ideology of the party, strict censorship, absence of political opposition;
• Economic deficit in relation to the production system;
• International collapse in oil prices;
• Many failures regarding the reform of the Soviet system;
• Global centralization of government agencies;
• Criticism about the introduction of Soviet troops in (1989).

It goes without saying that these are not all the reasons that led to the collapse of the USSR, but they can be considered key.

Perestroika of the USSR

In 1985, he became the new Secretary General of the USSR. He set a course for perestroika to change the ideological and political system.

Under his leadership, reforms began to be carried out aimed at achieving comprehensive democratization and abandoning the socialist system.

Under Gorbachev's rule, many KGB documents were declassified, thanks to which many of the crimes of the previous government became known to the public. It was the so-called openness policy.

Glasnost led to the fact that Soviet citizens began to actively criticize the communist system and its leaders.

As a result, new political movements emerged that came up with different programs for further development states.

Mikhail Gorbachev repeatedly came into conflict with, who insisted on the withdrawal of the RSFSR from the USSR.

Collapse of the USSR

The crisis and subsequent collapse of the USSR manifested themselves in different ways. In addition to the economic and political impasse, the state was faced with a sharp drop in the birth rate, as evidenced by statistics for 1989.

Store shelves were literally empty, and people were often unable to buy essential products.

The communist leadership in countries such as Czechoslovakia and Czechoslovakia was replaced by new democratic leaders.

Mass demonstrations and protests begin in one republic after another. In Moscow, people take to the streets demanding the overthrow of the government.

On March 10, 1991, the largest anti-government rally in history took place on Manezhnaya Square in Moscow. Soviet power. Hundreds of thousands of people demanded Gorbachev's resignation.

All this played into the hands of those who called themselves democrats. Their leader was Boris Yeltsin, who was gaining more and more popularity and respect from the people every day.

Parade of sovereignties

In February 1990, members of the CPSU Central Committee publicly announced the weakening of the monopoly on power. Within a month, the first elections were held, as a result of which the nationalists and liberals received the greatest support.

In the period 1990-1991, the so-called “parade of sovereignties” took place throughout the USSR. Ultimately, all the Union republics adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty, as a result of which the USSR ceased to exist.

The last president of the USSR

One of the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR was the reforms carried out by Mikhail Gorbachev in relation to Soviet society and system.

He himself came from a simple family. After graduating from the Faculty of Law of Moscow State University, he headed the Komsomol organization, and later became a member of the CPSU.

Gorbachev confidently moved up the career ladder, gaining authority among his colleagues.

In 1985, after the death of Konstantin Chernenko, he became Secretary General of the USSR. During his reign, Gorbachev introduced many radical reforms, many of which were poorly thought out.

Gorbachev's reform attempts

The so-called prohibition law, which included a complete or partial ban on alcoholic beverages, caused a big stir in the USSR.

In addition, Gorbachev announced the policy of glasnost, which we have already discussed, the introduction of self-financing, and the exchange of money.

In the foreign policy arena, he adhered to the “policy of new thinking”, which contributed to the establishment international relations and ending the arms race.

For these “achievements” that led to the collapse of the USSR, Mikhail Sergeevich was awarded Nobel Prize peace while the country was in dire straits.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Most Soviet citizens were critical of Gorbachev's actions because they did not see any practical benefit in his reforms.

1991 referendum

In March 1991, an all-Union referendum was held, in which about 80% of the citizens surveyed voted to preserve the USSR.

In this regard, attempts were made to sign an agreement on the creation of a Union of Sovereign States. However, in the end, all these ideas remained only in words.

August putsch

In August 1991, a group of politicians close to Gorbachev formed the State Emergency Committee (GKChP).

This self-proclaimed authority, whose leader was Gennady Yanaev, tried to do everything possible to prevent the collapse of the USSR.

After the creation of the State Emergency Committee, Yeltsin acted as the main opposition member of the committee. He stated that the actions of the State Emergency Committee are nothing more than a coup d'etat.

Reasons for the coup

The main reason for the August putsch can be called the negative attitude of people towards Gorbachev’s policies.

His famous restructuring did not bring the expected results. Instead, the state experienced economic and political collapse, and the crime and unemployment rates exceeded all imaginable norms.

Then Mikhail Gorbachev came up with the idea of ​​​​transforming the USSR into a Union of Sovereign States, which caused indignation among future putschists.

As soon as the president left the capital, activists immediately attempted an armed uprising. Ultimately, this came to nothing, and the putsch was crushed.

The significance of the GKChP putsch

As it turned out later, the putsch served as a catalyst for the collapse of the USSR. Every day the situation became more and more tense.

Soviet army tanks at the Spassky Gate after the coup on August 19, 1991

After the suppression of the putsch, Gorbachev resigned, as a result of which the CPSU collapsed, and all the union republics became independent.

The empire was replaced by 15 independent republics, and the main successor of the USSR was a new state - the Russian Federation.

Bialowieza Accords

On December 8, 1991, the Belovezhskaya Agreements were signed in Belarus. The heads of 3 republics put their signatures on the documents: , and Belarus.

The agreements stated that the USSR would officially cease to exist, and in its place the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) would be formed.

In some republics, separatist sentiments began to emerge, actively supported by local media.

For example, in Ukraine, on December 1, 1991, a referendum was held, at which the question of the independence of the republic was raised.

Soon he publicly spoke out that Ukraine was abandoning the 1922 treaty, which spoke of the creation of the USSR.

In this regard, Boris Yeltsin began to strengthen his power in Russia even more actively.

Creation of the CIS and the final collapse of the USSR

Meanwhile, in Belarus, Stanislav Shushkevich became the new chairman of the Supreme Council. He was the initiator of a meeting of the heads of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, at which key political topics were raised.

In particular, the leaders of the countries tried to discuss the further course of history. The creation of the USSR was denounced, and instead a plan was developed for the formation of the CIS.

It is important to note that the Belovezhskaya Agreements became the will of the peoples of the former Soviet republics, and not the decision of 3 presidents.

The ratification of the agreements was approved by the governments of each of the three countries at the official level.

Conclusion

Thus, within just a few months, a huge superpower disintegrated.

What it was: an accidental collapse, a deliberate collapse or the natural end of an empire - history will show.

B. Yeltsin and M. Gorbachev

Despite various criticisms of the USSR, during its existence the Soviet people managed to achieve unprecedented indicators in social and economic terms.

In addition, the state had enormous military potential and also achieved fantastic results in the space industry.

It's fair to say that many people still have fond memories of life in the Soviet Union.

Now you know all the main events associated with the collapse of the USSR. If you liked this article, share it on in social networks. If you like it at all, subscribe to the site IinterestingFakty.org.

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In March 1990, at an all-Union referendum, the majority of citizens spoke in favor of preserving the USSR and the need to reform it. By the summer of 1991, a new Union Treaty was prepared, which gave a chance to renew the federal state. But it was not possible to maintain unity.

Currently, there is no single point of view among historians on what was the main cause of the collapse of the USSR, and also on whether it was possible to prevent or at least stop the process of collapse of the USSR. Possible reasons include the following:

· The USSR was created in 1922. as a federal state. However, over time, it increasingly turned into a state controlled from the center and leveling out the differences between the republics and subjects of federal relations. The problems of inter-republican and interethnic relations have been ignored for many years. During the years of perestroika, when interethnic conflicts became explosive and extremely dangerous, decision-making was postponed until 1990-1991. The accumulation of contradictions made disintegration inevitable;

· The USSR was created on the basis of recognition of the right of nations to self-determination, The federation was built not on a territorial, but on a national-territorial principle. In the Constitutions of 1924, 1936 and 1977. contained norms on the sovereignty of the republics that were part of the USSR. In the context of a growing crisis, these norms became a catalyst for centrifugal processes;

· the unified national economic complex that developed in the USSR ensured the economic integration of the republics. However As economic difficulties grew, economic ties began to break down, the republics showed tendencies towards self-isolation, and the center was not ready for such a development of events;

· the Soviet political system was based on strict centralization of power, the real bearer of which was not so much the state as the Communist Party. The crisis of the CPSU, its loss of its leadership role, its collapse inevitably led to the collapse of the country;

· the unity and integrity of the Union was largely ensured by its ideological unity. The crisis of the communist value system created a spiritual vacuum that was filled with nationalist ideas;

· political, economic, ideological crisis, which the USSR experienced in the last years of its existence , led to the weakening of the center and the strengthening of the republics and their political elites. For economic, political, and personal reasons, the national elites were interested not so much in preserving the USSR as in its collapse. The “Parade of Sovereignties” of 1990 clearly showed the mood and intentions of the national party-state elites.

Consequences:

· the collapse of the USSR led to the emergence of independent sovereign states;

· the geopolitical situation in Europe and throughout the world has radically changed;

· the breakdown of economic ties has become one of the main reasons for the deep economic crisis in Russia and other countries - successors of the USSR;

· serious problems have arisen related to the fate of Russians who remained outside Russia, and national minorities in general (the problem of refugees and migrants).

1. Political liberalization has led to an increase in the numberinformal groups, since 1988, involved in political activities. The prototypes of future political parties were unions, associations and popular fronts of different directions (nationalist, patriotic, liberal, democratic, etc.). In the spring of 1988, the Democratic Bloc was formed, which included Eurocommunists, Social Democrats, and liberal groups.

An opposition Interregional Deputy Group was formed in the Supreme Council. In January 1990, an opposition democratic platform emerged within the CPSU, whose members began to leave the party.

Began to form political parties . The CPSU monopoly on power was lost, and from mid-1990 a rapid transition to a multi-party system began.

2. The collapse of the socialist camp (“Velvet Revolution” in Czechoslovakia (1989), events in Romania (1989), the unification of Germany and the disappearance of the GDR (1990), reforms in Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria.)

3. The growth of the nationalist movement, Its causes were the deterioration economic situation in national regions, conflict between local authorities and the “center”). Clashes began on ethnic grounds; since 1987, national movements have acquired an organized character (the Crimean Tatar movement, the movement for the reunification of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia, the movement for the independence of the Baltic states, etc.)

In the same time a new project was developedUnion Treaty, significantly expanding the rights of republics.

The idea of ​​a union treaty was put forward by the popular fronts of the Baltic republics back in 1988. The center adopted the idea of ​​a treaty later, when centrifugal tendencies were gaining strength and there was a “parade of sovereignties.” The question of Russian sovereignty was raised in June 1990 at the First Congress of People's Deputies Russian Federation. Was Declaration on State Sovereignty of the Russian Federation was adopted. This meant that the Soviet Union as a state entity was losing its main support.

The Declaration formally delimited the powers of the center and the republic, which did not contradict the Constitution. In practice, it established dual power in the country.

The example of Russia strengthened separatist tendencies in the union republics.

However, indecisive and inconsistent actions central leadership countries did not lead to success. In April 1991, the Union Center and nine republics (with the exception of the Baltic, Georgia, Armenia and Moldova) signed documents declaring the provisions of the new union treaty. However, the situation was complicated by the ongoing struggle between the parliaments of the USSR and Russia, which turned into war of laws.

At the beginning of April 1990, the Law was adopted On strengthening responsibility for attacks on the national equality of citizens and violent violation of the unity of the territory of the USSR, which was installed criminal liability for public calls for the violent overthrow or change of the Soviet social and state system.

But almost simultaneously it was adopted Law Oprocedure for resolving issues related Withthe exit of the union republic from the USSR, regulating order and proceduresecession from the USSR throughreferendum. A legal way to leave the Union was opened.

The Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in December 1990 voted to preserve the USSR.

However, the collapse of the USSR was already in full swing. In October 1990, at the congress of the Ukrainian Popular Front, the struggle for the independence of Ukraine was proclaimed; The Georgian parliament, in which nationalists received a majority, adopted a program for the transition to a sovereign Georgia. Political tension remained in the Baltic states.

In November 1990, the republics were offered a new version of the union treaty, which, instead of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, mentionedUnion of Soviet Sovereign Republics.

But at the same time, bilateral agreements were signed between Russia and Ukraine, mutually recognizing each other’s sovereignty regardless of the Center, between Russia and Kazakhstan. A parallel model of the union of republics was created.

4. In January 1991, it was held currency reform aimed at combating shadow economy, but which caused additional tension in society. The population expressed dissatisfaction deficit food and necessary goods.

B.N. Yeltsin demanded the resignation of the President of the USSR and the dissolution of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

Was scheduled for March referendum on the issue of preserving the USSR(opponents of the Union questioned its legitimacy, calling for the transfer of power to the Federation Council, consisting of the top officials of the republics). The majority of voters were in favor of preserving the USSR.

5. At the beginning of March, miners of Donbass, Kuzbass and Vorkuta began a strike, demanding the resignation of the President of the USSR, the dissolution of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, a multi-party system, and the nationalization of the property of the CPSU. The official authorities could not stop the process that had begun.

The referendum on March 17, 1991 confirmed the political split in society; in addition, a sharp increase in prices increased social tension and swelled the ranks of strikers.

In June 1991, elections for the President of the RSFSR were held. B.N. was elected Yeltsin.

Discussion of drafts of the new Union Treaty continued: some participants at the meeting in Novo-Ogarevo insisted on confederal principles, others on federal ones. It was supposed to sign the agreement in July - August 1991.

During the negotiations, the republics managed to defend many of their demands: the Russian language ceased to be the state language, the heads of the republican governments participated in the work of the Union Cabinet of Ministers with the right to a decisive vote, enterprises of the military-industrial complex were transferred to the joint jurisdiction of the Union and the republics.

Many questions about both the international and intra-Union status of the republics remained unresolved. Questions about Union taxes and disposal remained unclear natural resources, as well as the status of the six republics that did not sign the agreement. At the same time, the Central Asian republics concluded bilateral agreements with each other, and Ukraine refrained from signing an agreement until the adoption of its Constitution.

In July 1991, the President of Russia signed Decree on departition, prohibited the activities of party organizations in enterprises and institutions.

6. Created on August 19, 1991 State Committee for the State of Emergency in the USSR (GKChP) , declaring his intention to restore order in the country and prevent the collapse of the USSR. A state of emergency was established and censorship was introduced. Armored vehicles appeared on the streets of the capital.

In the second half of the 80s. National contradictions in the country are intensifying, separatist sentiments are growing. Local leaders and elites strive for independence in order to manage themselves economic resources And financial flows. Against the backdrop of rapid deterioration economic situation protest arises in the form of national movements. Gradually this results in a struggle against the Center, which was identified with Russia. “Popular Fronts” arose in a number of republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Armenia, Georgia). During 1989-1990 The Baltic, and after them other republics of the USSR, including the RSFSR, adopted declarations of national sovereignty. The national question has become an instrument of struggle for power.

With the growth of opposition to the union structures, a crisis of communist ideology began. The CPSU increasingly lost the functions of the mechanism that held the union of republics together. During 1989-1990 The Communist Parties of the Baltic republics left the CPSU. In 1990, the Communist Party of the RSFSR was created. In 1988-1990 party resolutions “On interethnic relations”, “On the foundations of economic relations USSR, Union and Autonomous Republics”, “On the procedure for resolving issues related to the withdrawal of a Union Republic from the USSR”. At the same time, the union leadership tried to maintain power through force (events in April 1989 in Tbilisi, January 1990 in Baku, January 1991 in Vilnius and Riga).

By mid-1990, the actual disintegration of the USSR was evident.

The Constitution was not in force in a large part of the country. The President of the USSR increasingly lost power and was no longer the only president in the country, since there were 15 more presidents and heads of republics. The CPSU lost its leadership role. In conditions of an unstable situation and strengthening centrifugal forces, one of the most important tasks was the reform of the USSR and the conclusion of a new union treaty between the republics.

On the initiative of Gorbachev, on March 17, 1991, a referendum was held in the USSR, during which the majority (76.4%) spoke in favor of maintaining the union state in an updated form. In April 1991, the leaders of 9 republics (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan), under the chairmanship of Gorbachev, in the Novo-Ogarevo estate near Moscow, decided to develop a new Union Treaty, according to which the rights of the republics were significantly increased , and the Center turned from a manager into a coordinating one.

August 1991 events The signing of the new Union Treaty was scheduled for August 20. The day before, on August 19, in order to disrupt the conclusion of the Treaty and restore the power of the Center and the CPSU, the conservative wing of the USSR leadership - G. Yanaev (Vice President), V. Pavlov (Prime Minister), Marshal D. Yazov (Minister of Defense), V. Kryuchkov (chairman of the KGB), B. Pugo (minister of internal affairs) announced the creation of the State Committee for the State of Emergency (GKChP) and tried to remove Gorbachev from power through a conspiracy (August 19-21, 1991) However, the putsch was strongly rejected by wide circles the public and the firm position of the Russian leadership led by Yeltsin led to the defeat of the putschists. On August 21, the putschists were arrested. These events were later called by some historians the August Revolution of 1991.

On August 23, 1991, Yeltsin signed a decree suspending the activities of the CPSU in Russia. Gorbachev resigned from the post of General Secretary of the Party Central Committee, which effectively marked the end of the CPSU. The Union Cabinet of Ministers was also dissolved, and in September the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR were dissolved. After the suppression of the coup to secede from the

The USSR was declared by 3 Baltic republics. Other republics also passed laws proclaiming sovereignty, which made them virtually independent of Moscow. Real power in the republics was concentrated in the hands of national leaders.

The collapse of the USSR and its consequences. On December 8, 1991, at the Belarusian meeting of the leaders of three sovereign republics - Russia (B. Yeltsin), Ukraine (L. Kravchuk) and Belarus (S. Shushkevich) - it was announced that the USSR would cease to exist and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) would be formed. This decision had no legal force, however, in the conditions of the collapse of the union statehood, no effective measures were taken to prevent the collapse of the USSR. On December 21, in Almaty, the leaders of the former Soviet republics supported the Belovezhskaya Agreement. December 25 President of the USSR M.S. Gorbachev resigned. January 1, 1992 Russia took the place of the USSR in the UN.

Reasons for the collapse of the USSR. Historically, the USSR repeated the fate of multinational empires, which naturally came to their collapse. The collapse of the USSR was the result of a complex of reasons: accumulating national problems and contradictions; failures of economic reforms during the perestroika period; the crisis of communist ideology and the weakening of the role of the CPSU with the subsequent liquidation of its monopoly, which formed the basis of the USSR; the movement for national self-determination of the republics, which began during perestroika, the desire of new national elites for power and financial and economic resources. A certain role in the destruction of the USSR was played by a subjective factor: Gorbachev’s mistakes, his inconsistency in carrying out reforms, the desire of the new Russian leadership, led by Yeltsin, to seize full power.

The consequences of the collapse of the USSR were extremely difficult for the peoples of the former Soviet republics. Political and economic ties between the republics were disrupted. Interethnic relations worsened, which led to conflicts in many regions of the former USSR (between Azerbaijan and Armenia; Georgia and South Ossetia, later Abkhazia, Ingushetia and North Ossetia etc.). The problem of refugees has arisen. The situation of the Russian-speaking population in the national republics has sharply worsened.