a specific combination of party system and voting method

organization of supreme power in a certain territory

136.Lobbying as a phenomenon reflects...

evolution of legitimate power

the process of influence of interest groups on government bodies

way of forming an elite

centralization of the power system

137.According to the elite theory, power in society always belongs to...

the majority of the people

possessing the necessary qualities to the minority

Political party

charismatic leader

138.International environmental organizations were formed in...

X years

1900-1910s

1940-1950s

139. A social phenomenon that represents one of the forms of resolving social contradictions between states, peoples, classes and social groups by means of armed violence is ...

War

confrontation

competition

140.Ideology__________emphasizes the continuity of development, the priority of the interests of the state over the interests of the individual, cult, traditions.

Marxism

liberalism

conservatism

social democracy

141.Coercive nature has...

autonomous participation

mobilized participation

Subjective activity

political participation

142. Subjects of political science as a science and academic discipline are (at least two answer options) ...

scientific and professional communities engaged in research and teaching of the subject area of ​​political science

scientists and teachers engaged in research and teaching of problems of politics and power

Politics and its central element - political power, reflecting political reality, political ideas

state power and its activities in carrying out internal and foreign policy

143.Methods of political forecasting do not include...

imagination

Extrapolation

expertise

scenario building

144. The sociometric method is a method...

identification of indicators that are most characteristic of the problem situation as an object of study and their cause-and-effect analysis

creating necessary and sufficient conditions for the manifestation and measurement of connections between phenomena

A survey aimed at identifying the state and dynamics of interpersonal relationships by recording feelings of sympathy and antipathy

collection of factual information, which involves replacing the properties and parameters of the research object with a system of symbols and meanings

145. The study of political processes and phenomena using survey techniques is called ____________ method

Statistical

institutional

communicative

sociological

146.The dynamic aspect of political relations, which expresses their dependence on the system of people’s actions and their consequences, is expressed by the concept ...

"political protest"

"political conflict"

"political norms"

"political activity"

147.The political system includes_____________________ subsystem

educational

economic

Social

normative

148.A prerequisite for the formation of civil society is not...

emergence of private property

establishment of a democratic political regime

affirmation of the ideology of collectivism

development market economy

149.A constitutional (parliamentary) monarchy is characterized by...

Strong limitation of monarchical power in the judicial and executive branches, virtually complete absence of powers in the legislative

limitation of powers only in the field of legislation

unlimited powers of the monarch in the field of legislative and executive activities

unlimited powers of the monarch in the field of legislative activity

150. Legitimate power, according to M. Weber, is ...

trusted power

power that is ignored

power of force

power that provides economic efficiency and stability

151.Main function political party is …

representation of public interests

formation of the ruling elite

conducting an election campaign

political socialization

152.Changes in the political system in the process of transition from traditional society to the modern one is called...

intrasystem changes

revolution

modernization

functioning

153.The function of political communication is...

making the most important decisions

development of new rules and regulations

application of sanctions against lawbreakers

It is impossible to imagine a real society and real market, where people would be driven solely by profit maximization orientations. This is only possible if we assume the possibility of single interactions between personalized counterparties, i.e. if the exchange of goods and products of economic activity were not repeated, much less regular. The spread of market exchanges and the formation of networks of interactions based on long-distance, non-personal connections and repeated, regular interactions gives rise to problems of reliability, confidence, and trust of participants, based not on personal connections, but on compliance with common universal norms. Regular exchange relations with predictable results for their participants presuppose the existence of a fairly stable, transparent and shared regulatory mechanism, a system of rules that will minimize arbitrariness and randomness.

If the network approach is focused on identifying the influence of the nature of structural connections between market participants on their activities, then the institutional approach reveals regulatory framework realization of private interests, i.e. is based on the idea that the individual desire for profit is always limited by the rules which are established for a given market area. Accepted standards limit the number of options for choosing a behavioral strategy and course of action to those that are considered legitimate, and also offer social actors ideas about particularly desirable, socially approved courses of action. These rules and regulations that guide the agents operating in the market constitute market institutions. According to D. North's definition, “institutions are rules, mechanisms that ensure their implementation, and norms of behavior that structure repeated interactions between people.”

In order for market exchange relations to be sustainably reproduced, institutions must regulate:

• Access to market interactions, i.e. participation of counterparties in acts of exchange;
• property rights, i.e. the procedure for appropriating benefits in the form of transfer of ownership rights and the right to appropriate profits by both sellers and buyers;
• characteristics of exchange objects as valid, i.e.:
  • – the possibility of goods participating in market exchange, the presence or absence of restrictions on their free purchase and sale;
  • – proper quality of goods involved in the exchange (certification, trademarks);
• mutual obligations of the parties related to various circumstances of the exchange (procedure and form of payment, terms, frequency of deliveries, transportation costs, storage, etc.);
• forms and methods of interaction (contracts, business ethics);
• enforcement of rules and sanctions systems:
• – sanctions for violating the rules;
• – systems of guarantees of compliance with rules;
• – monitoring order in markets.

D. North emphasizes that since individual market participants do not always have complete information about all the circumstances of the transaction and limited ability to monitor compliance with contracts, there is a need for an exchange participant who specializes in approving, legitimizing and enforcing all these rules, which is the state . At the same time, no formal rules are capable of taking into account and regulating all possible circumstances of market activity in real life, therefore they are supplemented by informal rules of conduct based on ethical norms and values, traditions and the sociocultural environment. Thus, institutions regulating the market can be divided into formal and informal.

Formal rules represent systems of norms for the implementation of market exchanges, fixed in laws and various acts and regulations that have the status of laws, i.e. legitimized by the state and based on its authority and power. Their compliance is mandatory for all market participants, and violations are followed by sanctions, also prescribed by law and implemented by authorized government agencies (arbitration courts etc.).

If it is mandatory to comply with formal rules on the territory of a given state, we can distinguish rules that apply:

• for all market participants (laws regulating economic activity);
• on participants in specific transactions (officially executed contracts, agreements, non-compliance with which may result in sanctions carried out on the basis of court decisions).

The subordination of market participants to formal rules is the result of beliefs in the need for order, responsibility for the legitimate conduct of affairs arising as a result of the internalization of rules and norms, and coercion from the state, fear of sanctions and too great prices violations of regulations (penalties, fines, etc.).

Informal rules are formed in the process of historical development of economic activity, including market exchanges, in the context of specific socio-cultural systems. They can be based on ethical norms, customs and traditions, rooted in the worldview of a given society, its mentality. Informal rules, not having unambiguous formulations, sources and authorities on which they could rely, allow broader interpretations than formal ones. They are not supported by clearly stated and inevitable sanctions for violation, and therefore may be perceived by some market participants as optional. However, the effect of informal rules is longer-term, they cannot be adopted or canceled at the request of any actors, and they are less related to the interests of specific social groups.

The universality of informal norms is determined by their rootedness in the culture and social relations of a given society and internalization in the process of socialization of economic actors, transforming them into general stereotypes of consciousness, implemented in specific practices. Thus, in Western societies it is customary to trust exclusively written contracts, which are drawn up in such a way as to stipulate as accurately as possible all the small nuances of the transaction. In Japan, it is believed that a written contract should record only the general intentions of the parties, while details that cannot be foreseen are left to the discretion of the participants, depending on their interpretation specific situations. This is generally explained by the phenomenological and situational orientation of the thinking of the Japanese, as opposed to the orientation toward rigid formal and logical frameworks inherent in Western consciousness.

As historians testify, in pre-revolutionary Russia, entrepreneurs relied more on the “merchant's word” than on formal contracts. Studies of the rules operating in modern Russian markets, conducted within the framework of the institutional approach, indicate both a low culture of written contracts and mutual distrust of participants due to negative experience of contract violations.

Formal and informal rules operating in markets are related to complex dynamics. They not only complement each other, but are in a fluid state of institutional transformation. These transformations assume:

• formalization of informal rules that have become widespread and entrenched in everyday experience;
• deformalization of rules in case of their ineffectiveness, opacity, unprofitability, difficulty of compliance, etc.;
• mutual complementarity as the embedding of informal rules into formal systems.

It is generally accepted that main problem is the lack of clearly fixed, formalized rules of action, as well as imperfect execution of existing market participants, which introduces uncertainty and unpredictability into their activities and forces them to develop their own informal rules. This is only partly true. In addition to the problem of formalizing rules, opposite processes are of no less, if not greater, social significance.

Formal institutions are the result of the legislative activity of the state, and therefore are focused on establishing a procedure for carrying out economic activities that is appropriate to its nature. They reflect the uneven distribution of power resources in society in the interests of those social groups that are in power. D. North emphasizes: “Those laws that meet the interests of those in power begin to be adopted and observed, and not those that reduce total transaction costs... even if rulers want to pass laws, guided by considerations of efficiency, the interests of self-preservation will dictate a different course of action for them , since effective norms may infringe on the interests of powerful political groups." The adopted formal rules reflect not so much the need of society for effective regulation of market relations, but rather the desire of the groups in power to control economic activities, and they exercise this control not only in the interests of the state and society, but also in their own interests - political and economic. Often, formal rules become a tool of pressure from officials on market participants; studies note a high degree of dependence of entrepreneurs on officials, which encourages them to look for informal ways to solve problems.

The deformalization of rules is caused by the complexity and redundancy of formal regulation, imperfection of laws and practices of their application, which causes high transaction costs. Deformalization takes the form, firstly, of direct challenging of rules and active efforts to change them, and secondly, of actions bypassing formal rules.

Deformalization, however, does not mean an increase in chaos, but an increase in informal regulation through the establishment of tacit agreements; replacing formal payments with informal ones, including bribes, optimizing transaction costs; simplifying the conduct of business in the form of personal agreements, as well as the formation of complex networks of personal relationships with officials and representatives of regulatory authorities. Such networks involve subtle systems of hierarchies and their own norms for organizing connections, based on mutually beneficial agreements, mutual concessions and services. Based on formation materials Russian markets in the 90s last century, these relationships were studied by V.V. Radaev. At the same time, formal rules are not completely replaced by informal ones, but mutual growth and addition occurs, which generally increases the opacity of the market.

The dynamics of market institutions presuppose constant transformations of formal and informal rules, their coexistence and interpenetration, which take on a specific form in different countries and in different periods of history. Practice shows that the mere improvement of formal rules, as well as the tightening of responsibility for their violation, does not eliminate the problem of deformalization. Modern economic and social life is so complex and diverse, includes so many groups of actors different in culture, traditions, worldviews and interests, that it would take into account all their interests and lead to a certain uniform form almost impossible. Tightening sanctions often leads, as we know, not to an increase in law-abidingness, but, on the contrary, to a deformalization of the rules: an increase in fines for various violations gives rise to an increase in bribes to officials at various levels. At the same time, within the framework of the institutional approach to market analysis, the idea has developed that the economic interests of its participants are always limited by existing formal and informal rules, i.e. are subject to correction by society and the state.

A social institution in a sociological interpretation is considered as historically established, stable forms of organization joint activities of people; in a narrower sense, it is an organized system of social connections and norms designed to satisfy the basic needs of society, social groups and the individual.

Social institutions(insitutum - institution) - value-normative complexes(values, rules, norms, attitudes, patterns, standards of behavior in certain situations), as well as bodies and organizations, ensuring their implementation and approval in the life of society.

All elements of society are interconnected public relations- connections that arise between and within social groups in the process of material (economic) and spiritual (political, legal, cultural).

In the process, some connections may die, others may appear. Connections that have proven their benefits to society are streamlined, become generally significant patterns and are subsequently repeated from generation to generation. The more stable these connections that are useful for society are, the more stable the society itself is.

Social institutions (from the Latin institutum - device) are called elements of society that represent stable forms of organization and regulation of social life. Such institutions of society as the state, education, family, etc., organize social relations, regulate the activities of people and their behavior in society.

Main target social institutions - achieving stability during the development of society. In accordance with this purpose, there are functions institutes:

• meeting the needs of society;
• regulation of social processes (during which these needs are usually satisfied).

Needs, which are satisfied by social institutions, are diverse. For example, society’s need for security can be supported by the defense institution, spiritual needs by the church, and the need to understand the world around us by science. Each institution can satisfy several needs (the church is able to satisfy religious, moral, cultural needs), and the same need can be satisfied by different institutions (spiritual needs can be satisfied by art, science, religion, etc.).

The process of satisfying needs (say, the consumption of goods) can be institutionally regulated. For example, there are legal restrictions on the purchase of a number of goods (weapons, alcohol, tobacco). The process of meeting society's needs for education is regulated by institutions of primary, secondary, higher education.

The structure of a social institution form:

• and designed to satisfy the needs of groups and individuals;
• a set of social values ​​and patterns of behavior that ensure satisfaction of needs;
• system of symbols regulating relationships in economic sphere activities (trademark, flag, brand, etc.);
• ideological justifications for the activities of a social institution;
• social resources used in the activities of the institute.

TO signs of a social institution relate:

• a set of institutions, social groups whose purpose is to satisfy certain needs of society;
• a system of cultural patterns, norms, values, symbols;
• a system of behavior in accordance with these norms and patterns;
• material and human resources necessary to solve problems;
• socially recognized mission, goal, ideology.

Let us consider the characteristics of an institute using the example of secondary vocational education. It includes:

• teachers, officials, administration educational institutions etc.;
• standards of student behavior, society's attitude towards the system of professional education;
• the established practice of relations between teachers and students;
• buildings, classrooms, teaching aids;
• mission is to meet society's needs for good specialists with secondary vocational education.

In accordance with the spheres of public life, four main groups of institutions can be distinguished:

• economic institutions - division of labor, stock exchange, etc.;
• political institutions- state, army, militia, police, parliamentarism, presidency, monarchy, court, parties, civil society;
• institutions of stratification and kinship - class, estate, caste, gender discrimination, racial segregation, nobility, social Security, family, marriage, fatherhood, motherhood, adoption, twinning;
• cultural institutions- school, high school, secondary professional education, theaters, museums, clubs, libraries, church, monasticism, confession.

The number of social institutions is not limited to the given list. Institutions are numerous and varied in their forms and manifestations. Large institutions may include institutions larger than low level. For example, the institute of education includes institutes of primary, vocational and higher education; court - institutions of the legal profession, prosecutor's office, judging; family - institutions of motherhood, adoption, etc.

Since society is a dynamic system, some institutions may disappear (for example, the institution of slavery), while others may appear (the institution of advertising or the institution of civil society). The formation of a social institution is called the process of institutionalization.

Institutionalization- the process of streamlining social relations, forming stable patterns of social interaction based on clear rules, laws, patterns and rituals. For example, the process of institutionalization of science is the transformation of science from the activity of individuals into an ordered system of relationships, including a system of titles, academic degrees, research institutes, academies, etc.

Basic social institutions

TO main social institutions traditionally include family, state, education, church, science, law. Below is given a brief description of of these institutions and their main functions are presented.

- the most important social institution of kinship, connecting individuals through a commonality of life and mutual moral responsibility. The family performs a number of functions: economic (housekeeping), reproductive (having children), educational (transferring values, norms, models), etc.

- the main political institution that manages society and ensures its security. The state performs internal functions, including economic (regulating the economy), stabilization (maintaining stability in society), coordination (ensuring public harmony), ensuring the protection of the population (protecting rights, legality, social security) and many others. There are also external functions: defense (in case of war) and international cooperation(to protect the interests of the country in the international arena).

- a social cultural institution that ensures the reproduction and development of society through the organized transfer of social experience in the form of knowledge, skills, and abilities. The main functions of education include adaptation (preparation for life and work in society), professional (training of specialists), civic (training of citizens), general cultural (introduction to cultural values), humanistic (discovery of personal potential), etc.

Church - a religious institution formed on the basis of a single religion. Church members share common norms, dogmas, rules of behavior and are divided into clergy and laity. The Church performs the following functions: ideological (determines views on the world), compensatory (offers consolation and reconciliation), integrating (unites believers), general cultural (introduces cultural values), etc.

- a special sociocultural institution for the production of objective knowledge. The functions of science include cognitive (promotes knowledge of the world), explanatory (interprets knowledge), ideological (determines views on the world), prognostic (makes forecasts), social (changes society) and productive (determines the production process).

- a social institution, a system of generally binding norms and relations protected by the state. The state, with the help of law, regulates the behavior of people and social groups, establishing certain relationships as mandatory. The main functions of law: regulatory (regulates social relations) and protective (protects those relations that are useful for society as a whole).

All the elements of social institutions discussed above are illuminated from the point of view of social institutions, but other approaches to them are also possible. For example, science can be considered not only as a social institution, but also as a special form of cognitive activity or as a system of knowledge; family is not only an institution, but also a small social group.

Types of social institutions

Activity social institution is determined:

• firstly, a set of specific norms and regulations governing relevant types of behavior;
• secondly, the integration of a social institution into the socio-political, ideological and value structures of society;
• thirdly, the presence material resources and conditions that ensure successful compliance with regulations and implementation.

The most important social institutions are:

• state and family;
• economics and politics;
• Media and ;
• law and education.

Social institutions contribute to the consolidation and reproduction those or other especially important for society social relations , and system stability in all main spheres of its life - economic, political, spiritual and social.

Types of social institutions depending on their field of activity:

• relational;
• regulatory.

Relational institutions (for example, insurance, labor, production) determine the role structure of society based on a certain set of characteristics. The objects of these social institutions are role groups (policyholders and insurers, producers and employees, etc.).

Regulatory institutions determine the boundaries of individual independence (separate independent actions) to achieve their own goals. This group includes institutions of the state, government, social protection, business, healthcare.

In the process of development, the social institution of the economy changes its form and can belong to the group of either endogenous or exogenous institutions.

Endogenous(or internal) social institutions characterize the state of obsolescence of an institution, requiring its reorganization or in-depth specialization of activities, for example, institutions of credit, money, which become obsolete over time and require the introduction of new forms of development.

Exogenous institutions reflect the effect on a social institution external factors, elements of culture or the personality of the head (leader) of the organization, for example, changes occurring in the social institution of taxes under the influence of the level of tax culture of taxpayers, the level of business and professional culture of the leaders of this social institution.

Functions of social institutions

The purpose of social institutions is to to satisfy the most important needs and interests of society.

Economic needs in society are simultaneously satisfied by several social institutions, and each institution, through its activities, satisfies a variety of needs, among which stand out: vital(physiological, material) and social(personal needs for work, self-realization, creative activity and social justice). A special place among social needs is occupied by the individual’s need for achievement - the achievement need. It is based on McLelland's concept, according to which each individual exhibits a desire to express and manifest himself in specific social conditions.

In the course of their activities, social institutions perform both general and individual functions, corresponding to the specifics of the institute.

General features:

• Function of consolidation and reproduction public relations. Any institution consolidates and standardizes the behavior of members of society through its rules and norms of behavior.
• Regulatory function ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior and regulating their actions.
• Integrative function includes the process of interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups.
• Broadcasting function(socialization). Its content is the transfer of social experience, familiarization with the values, norms, and roles of a given society.

Selected functions:

• The social institution of marriage and family implements the function of reproduction of members of society together with the relevant departments of the state and private enterprises (antenatal clinics, maternity hospitals, a network of children's medical institutions, bodies supporting and strengthening the family, etc.).
• The Social Institute of Health is responsible for maintaining the health of the population (clinics, hospitals and other medical institutions, as well as state bodies organizing the process of maintaining and promoting health).
• A social institution for the production of means of subsistence, performing the most important creative function.
• Political institutions that are in charge of organizing political life.
• Social institution of law performing the function of development legal documents and responsible for compliance with laws and regulations.
• A social institution of education and norms with the corresponding function of education, socialization of members of society, familiarization with its values, norms, laws.
• A social institute of religion that helps people solve spiritual problems.

Social institutions realize all their positive qualities only if their legitimacy, i.e. recognition of the expediency of their actions by the majority of the population. Sharp shifts in class consciousness and a revaluation of fundamental values ​​can seriously undermine the population's trust in existing governing and governing bodies and disrupt the mechanism of regulatory influence on people.

In this case, instability in society, the threat of chaos, entropy, the consequences of which can become catastrophic, sharply increases. Thus, it intensified in the second half of the 80s. XX century in the USSR, the erosion of socialist ideals and the reorientation of mass consciousness towards the ideology of individualism seriously undermined the trust of the Soviet people in the old social institutions. The latter were unable to fulfill their stabilizing role and collapsed.

The inability of the leadership of Soviet society to bring the main structures into line with the updated system of values ​​predetermined the collapse of the USSR and the subsequent instability of Russian society, i.e., the stability of society is ensured only by those structures that enjoy the trust and support of its members.

In the course of development, the main social institutions may new ones separate institutional formations. Thus, at a certain stage, the institution of higher education is separated from the social institution of education. From the public legal system The Constitutional Court was created as an independent institution. Such differentiation is one of the most important signs of the development of society.

Social institutions can be called central components of the structure of society, integrating and coordinating many individual actions of people. The system of social institutions and relations between them is the framework that serves as the basis for the formation of society, with all the ensuing consequences. What are the foundation, the structure, the supporting components of society, such are its strength, fundamentality, solidity, stability.

The process of streamlining, formalizing, standardizing social relations within the old structure and creating new social institutions is called institutionalization. The higher its level, the better the quality of life in society.

Economy as a social institution

IN group fundamental economic social institutions include: property, market, money, exchange, banks, finance, various types of economic associations, which together form a complex system of production relations, connecting economic life with other spheres of social life.

Thanks to the development of social institutions, the entire system of economic relations and society as a whole functions, the individual is socialized in the social and labor sphere, and norms of economic behavior and moral values ​​are transmitted.

Let us highlight four characteristics common to all social institutions in the sphere of economics and finance:

• interaction between participants in social connections and relationships;
• availability of trained professional personnel to ensure the activities of the institutes;
• determination of the rights, responsibilities and functions of each participant in social interaction in economic life;
• regulation and control of the effectiveness of the interaction process in the economy.

The development of the economy as a social institution is subject not only to economic laws, but also sociological. The functioning of this institution and its integrity as a system are ensured by various social institutions and social organizations that monitor the work of social institutions in the field of economics and finance and control the behavior of their members.

The basic institutions with which the economy interacts are politics, education, family, law, etc.

Activities and functions of the economy as a social institution

The main functions of the economy as a social institution are:

• coordination of social interests of business entities, producers and consumers;
• meeting the needs of the individual, social groups, strata and organizations;
• strengthening social connections within economic system, as well as with external social organizations and institutions;
• maintaining order and preventing uncontrolled competition between business entities in the process of meeting needs.

The main goal of a social institution is achieving stability and maintaining it.

The stability of the economy as a social institution is determined primarily by such objective factors as territorial and climatic conditions, the availability of human resources, and the level of development material production, state real sector economics, social structure society, legal conditions and the legislative framework functioning of the economy.

Economics and politics are most often considered social institutions that have the greatest impact on the development of society and its stability as a social system.

As a social institution, it creates the material basis for the development of social relations, because an unstable and poor society is not able to maintain normal reproduction of the population, the intellectual and educational basis for the development of the system. All social institutions are connected with the institution of economics, are dependent on it, and their condition largely determines the prospects for the development of Russian society, being powerful stimulators of its economic progress and the development of the political system.

As a social institution, it creates laws and implements power functions, which makes it possible to finance the development of priority spheres of society as industries. As the social Russian practice, in the context of the transition to market relations, the influence of such social institutions as culture and education, directly involved in the creation and spiritual capital of the state, increases sharply.

1. Institute as a basic concept

The economic actions of an individual take place not in an isolated space, but in a certain society. And therefore it is of great importance how society will react to them. Thus, transactions that are acceptable and profitable in one place may not necessarily be viable even under similar conditions in another. An example of this is the restrictions imposed on human economic behavior by various religious cults.

In order to avoid the coordination of many external factors that influence success and the very possibility of making a particular decision, within the framework of economic and social orders, schemes or algorithms of behavior are developed that are the most effective under given conditions. These schemes and algorithms, or matrices of individual behavior, are nothing more than institutions.

Etymology of the word institute. Institute (English) – to establish, establish.

The concept of institution was borrowed by economists from the social sciences, in particular from sociology.

An institution is a set of roles and statuses designed to satisfy a specific need.

IN economic theory The concept of institution was first included in analysis by Thorstein Veblen.

Institutions are, in fact, a common way of thinking as regards the particular relations between society and the individual and the particular functions they perform; and the system of social life, which is composed of the totality of those acting at a certain time or at any moment in the development of any society, can, from the psychological side, be characterized in general terms as the prevailing spiritual position or the widespread idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe way of life in society.

Veblen also understood institutions as:

Habitual ways of responding to stimuli;

The structure of the production or economic mechanism;

The currently accepted system of social life.

Another founder of institutionalism, John Commons, defines institution as follows:

An institution is a collective action to control, liberate and expand individual action.

Another classic of institutionalism, Wesley Mitchell, has the following definition:

Institutions are dominant and highly standardized social habits.

Currently, within the framework of modern institutionalism, the most common interpretation of institutions is Douglas North’s:

Institutions are the rules, the mechanisms that enforce them, and the norms of behavior that structure repeated interactions between people.

Institutions regulate access to the legal use of rare and valuable resources, and also determine the principles of this access. They determine what these or those interests are and how they should be realized, taking into account the fact that the very rarity of these resources, which makes accessing them difficult, forms the basis for rivalry and even conflicts in the struggle for their possession. Institutions regulate (structure and consolidate as socially recognized practices) such a struggle between various interests. They define the rules of the game, as well as the goals that can be achieved in that game, but not the moves that players must make during the game, remaining within the institutionally defined space of opportunities, choices and incentives. Institutions determine the ways in which resource-scarce conflict can be mitigated and resolved.

The functioning of institutions is determined by the type of their activity, cultural traditions and many other factors, among which efficiency is far from being the determining parameter. Changes more often occur to them because the values ​​that determine their existence change, or they themselves become incompatible with other values ​​and institutions, but not for reasons of efficiency.

The general characteristics of a social institution include:

Identification of a certain circle of subjects who enter into relationships in the process of activity that become sustainable;

A specific organization;

The presence of specific social norms and regulations governing the behavior of people within a public institution;

The presence of socially significant functions of the institute.

There are various classifications of public institutions. Typically, there are two criteria for classifying institutions: substantive (substantive) and formalized.

Based on the subject criterion, the following types of institutions are distinguished:

Political institutions (state, parties, army);

Economic institutions (division of labor, property, taxes, etc.);

Institutes of kinship, marriage and family;

Institutions operating in the spiritual sphere (education, culture, mass communications, etc.).

Based on a formalized criterion, institutions are divided into formal and informal. The activities of formal institutions are based on strict, normative and, possibly, legally enforceable regulations, rules, and instructions. Constitution, laws, orders, regulations, contracts, agreements of intent, etc. - these are formal rules. State, army, court, institution of marriage, school, etc. - these are formal institutions.

The source of informal institutions is culture. In informal institutions, there is no regulation of social roles, functions, means and methods of activity and sanctions for non-normative behavior. It is being replaced by informal regulation through traditions, customs, social norms, etc. This does not make the informal institution cease to be an institution and to perform the corresponding regulatory functions.

Also in the economic literature, two types of institutions are distinguished:

1. External - establishing the basic rules in the economic system that ultimately determine its character. (For example, the institution of property).

2. Internal – which make transactions between entities possible, reduce the degree of uncertainty and risk and reduce transaction costs. (Enterprises, types of contracts, means of payment and credit, means of accumulation).

One of the factors characterizing society as a whole is the totality of social institutions. Their location seems to be on the surface, which makes them particularly suitable objects for observation and control.

In turn, a complex organized system with its own norms and rules is a social institution. Its signs are different, but classified, and it is they that are to be considered in this article.

The concept of a social institution

A social institution is one of the forms of organization. This concept was first used. According to the scientist, the whole variety of social institutions creates the so-called framework of society. The division into forms, Spencer said, is made under the influence of the differentiation of society. He divided the whole society into three main institutions, including:

• reproductive;
• distribution;
• regulating.

Opinion of E. Durkheim

E. Durkheim was convinced that a person as an individual can realize himself only with the help of social institutions. They are also called upon to establish responsibility between interinstitutional forms and the needs of society.

Karl Marx

The author of the famous "Capital" assessed social institutions from the point of view of industrial relations. In his opinion, a social institution, the signs of which are present both in the division of labor and in the phenomenon of private property, was formed precisely under their influence.

Terminology

The term "social institution" comes from the Latin word "institution", which means "organization" or "order". In principle, all the features of a social institution are reduced to this definition.

The definition includes the form of consolidation and the form of implementation of specialized activities. The purpose of social institutions is to ensure the stability of the functioning of communications within society.

The following brief definition of the term is also acceptable: an organized and coordinated form of social relations aimed at meeting the needs that are significant to society.

It is easy to notice that all of the definitions provided (including the above-mentioned opinions of scientists) are based on “three pillars”:

• society;
• organization;
• needs.

But these are not yet full-fledged features of a social institution; rather, they are supporting points that should be taken into account.

Conditions for institutionalization

The process of institutionalization - a social institution. This occurs under the following conditions:

• social need as a factor that will be satisfied by the future institution;
• social connections, that is, the interaction of people and communities, as a result of which social institutions are formed;
• expedient and rules;
• material and organizational, labor and financial resources required.

Stages of institutionalization

The process of formation of a social institution goes through several stages:

• the emergence and awareness of the need for an institute;
• development of norms of social behavior within the framework of the future institution;
• creating your own symbols, that is, a system of signs that will indicate the social institution being created;
• formation, development and definition of a system of roles and statuses;
• creation of the material basis of the institute;
• integration of the institute into the existing social system.

Structural characteristics of a social institution

The signs of the concept of “social institution” characterize it in modern society.

Structural features include:

• Scope of activity, as well as social relations.
• Institutions that have specific powers to organize people's activities and perform various roles and functions. For example: public, organizational and performing control and management functions.
• Those specific rules and norms that are designed to regulate the behavior of people in a particular social institution.
• Material means to achieve the goals of the institute.
• Ideology, goals and objectives.

Types of social institutions

The classification that systematizes social institutions (the table below) divides this concept into four individual species. Each of them includes at least four more specific institutions.

What social institutions exist? The table shows their types and examples.

Spiritual social institutions in some sources are called cultural institutions, and the family sphere, in turn, is sometimes called stratification and kinship.

General characteristics of a social institution

The general, and at the same time the main, features of a social institution are as follows:

• a circle of subjects who, in the course of their activities, enter into relationships;
• the sustainable nature of these relationships;
• a specific (and this means, to one degree or another formalized) organization;
• behavioral norms and rules;
• functions that ensure the integration of the institution into the social system.

It should be understood that these signs are informal, but logically follow from the definition and functioning of various social institutions. With the help of them, among other things, it is convenient to analyze institutionalization.

Social institution: signs using specific examples

Each specific social institution has its own characteristics - characteristics. They closely overlap with roles, for example: the main roles of the family as a social institution. That is why it is so instructive to consider examples and the corresponding signs and roles.

Family as a social institution

A classic example of a social institution is, of course, the family. As can be seen from the table above, it belongs to the fourth type of institutions, covering the same sphere. Therefore, it is the basis and ultimate goal for marriage, fatherhood and motherhood. Besides, family is what unites them.

Signs of this social institution:

• ties by marriage or consanguinity;
• general family budget;
• living together in the same living space.

The main roles boil down to the well-known saying that she is a “unit of society.” Essentially, everything is exactly like that. Families are particles from the totality of which society is formed. In addition to being a social institution, the family is also called small social group. And it is no coincidence, because from birth a person develops under its influence and experiences it throughout his life.

Education as a social institution

Education is a social subsystem. It has its own specific structure and characteristics.

Basic elements of education:

• social organizations and social communities (educational institutions and division into groups of teachers and students, etc.);
• sociocultural activity in the form of an educational process.

The characteristics of a social institution include:

1. Norms and rules - in an educational institute, examples include: thirst for knowledge, attendance, respect for teachers and classmates/classmates.
2. Symbolism, that is cultural characteristics- anthems and emblems of educational institutions, the animal symbol of some famous colleges, emblems.
3. Utilitarian cultural features such as classrooms and offices.
4. Ideology - the principle of equality between students, mutual respect, freedom of speech and the right to vote, as well as the right to one’s own opinion.

Signs of social institutions: examples

Let's summarize the information presented here. The characteristics of a social institution include:

• a set of social roles (for example, father/mother/daughter/sister in the family institution);
• sustainable models of behavior (for example, certain models for a teacher and a student at an educational institute);
• norms (for example, codes and the Constitution of the state);
• symbolism (for example, the institution of marriage or religious community);
• basic values ​​(i.e. morals).

The social institution, the features of which were discussed in this article, is designed to guide the behavior of each individual person, directly being part of his life. At the same time, for example, an ordinary high school student belongs to at least three social institutions: family, school and state. It is interesting that, depending on each of them, he also owns the role (status) that he has and according to which he chooses his model of behavior. She, in turn, sets his characteristics in society.