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Character traits fast industrial society

Sphere of public life	Character traits
Economic	1.High levelusing information for economic development. 2. Dominance of the service sector. 3. Individualization of production and consumption. 4. Automation and robotization of all areas of production and management. 5. Cooperation with nature. 6. Development of resource-saving, environmentally friendly technologies.
Political	1.Strong civil society, where law and order prevail. 2.Political pluralism (many political parties). 3. The emergence of a new form of democracy - “democracy of consensus”, based on mutual concessions.
Social	1.Erasure of class differences. 2.Growth of the middle class. 3. Differentiation level of knowledge.
Spiritual	1. The special role of science and education. 2. Development of individualized consciousness. 3.Continuing education.

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Post-industrial society	Example
	1.State in southwestern Europe (Spain). It is one of the top ten global manufacturers of cars, ships, forging equipment and gas compressors, machine tools, petroleum products and chemical products. Banking system is one of the most stable in Europe. More than 500 political parties and public organizations are officially registered. It is considered an open-air museum. Cultural and historical monuments that have worldwide fame are carefully preserved. Air transport takes the leading place. Of the 42 airports, 34 provide regular flights. Spain has a well-developed media network.
	2.Country in Northern Europe (Sweden). It is consistently ranked among the 20 most developed countries in the world, and in the top ten in terms of quality of life. The main share of GDP is created by the service sector, which includes tourism (6 million tourists per year). Features a high level social protection population.
	3.Country in Western Europe (France). In terms of total economic output, the country occupies a leading position in the European Union; in terms of GDP per capita ($31,100, 2006) it consistently ranks among the world's top twenty. Has the most developed network in Europe railways. Approximately 30% of GDP is spent on social needs. A 39-hour working week is officially established (the shortest in Europe).

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Used Books:

1. Social studies: Textbook for 10th grade. Part 1 – 3rd ed. / A.I. Kravchenko. – M.: “TID “Russian Word - RS”, 2003.

2. Social studies: Textbook for 11th grade. – 5th ed. / A.I. Kravchenko, E.A. Pevtsova. – M.: LLC TID “Russkoe Slovo – RS”, 2004.

3. Unified State Exam 2009. Social studies. Directory / O.V. Kishenkova. – M.: Eksmo, 2008.

4. Social studies: Unified State Exam-2008: real tasks / author's compilation. O.A.Kotova, T.E.Liskova. – M.: AST: Astrel, 2008.

5. Unified State Examination 2010. Social studies: tutor / A.Yu. Lazebnikova, E.L. Rutkovskaya, M.Yu. Brandt and others - M.: Eksmo, 2010.

6. Social studies. Preparation for the state final certification-2010: educational and methodological manual / O.A. Chernysheva, R.P. Pazin. – Rostov n/d: Legion, 2009.

7. Social studies. Experimental examination paper. Typical test tasks. 8th grade / S.V. Krayushkina. – M.: Publishing House “Exam”, 2009.

8. Social studies: a complete reference book / P.A. Baranov, A.V. Vorontsov, S.V. Shevchenko; edited by P.A. Baranova. – M.: AST: Astrel; Vladimir: VKT, 2010.

9. Social studies: profile level: academic. For 10th grade. general education Institutions / L.N. Bogolyubov, A.Yu. Lazebnikova, N.M. Smirnova and others, ed. L.N. Bogolyubova and others - M.: Education, 2007.

The definition of post-industrial society states that due to scientific and technological revolution and the increased income of the population, priority shifted from the production of goods to the production of services. Information and knowledge are now especially in demand, and scientific achievements have become the basis of the economy. When applying for a job, the level of education and professionalism, learning ability and creativity are assessed. The article describes the new economy.

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What services are in demand in post-industrial countries?

These are the countries where the service sector accounts for more than half of GDP. This list contains:

• USA - 80% as of 2002.
• EU countries - 69.4% in 2004.
• Australia - 69% as of 2003.
• Japan - 67.7% in 2001.
• Canada - 70% as of 2004.
• Russia - 58% in 2007.

In a post-industrial society, production volumes material assets are not decreasing, but are only developing less actively than the volume of services. The latter refers not only to trade, public services, but also any infrastructure. Today the society contains:

Some futurologists are confident that post-industrial society is only an introductory part to the “post-human” stage of development of civilization on planet Earth.

Main features of post-industrial society

The term “post-industrialism” appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, it was introduced by a specialist who studied pre-industrial industrial development Asian countries, A. Kumaraswamy. Modern meaning The term was adopted in the middle of the century, and gained widespread recognition thanks to the work of Daniel Bell. A professor at Harvard University published a book in 1973 "The Coming Post-Industrial Society", which marked the beginning of a new concept. It is based on the division of social development into 3 stages:

1. In pre-industrial times, the most important structures were the church and the army, which determined the sphere - Agriculture.
2. In the industrial world, corporations and firms were in the first positions, and industry was an important sector.
3. In the post-industrial period, theoretical knowledge has come to the fore, led by the university, where its production and accumulation take place.

The mass consumer society arose as a response to assembly line production, which increased labor productivity, but now there is a continuous production of information that makes it possible to obtain development in all directions. The service economy, which arose on the basis of mass consumption, gave rise to the information economy; this sector is developing most actively.

Reasons for appearance

Researchers of this phenomenon have not found common ground, so there are many reasons for the emergence of a post-industrial society:

“Marxists” see other reasons:

• The division of labor from production constantly isolates individual actions that are formed in separate service. For example, previously the manufacturer himself developed and implemented an advertising campaign, which was part of the business, but now advertising business- an independent sector of the economy.
• Labor has divided and become international, production is concentrated in regions where specific activities are more profitable. Previously, such processes separated physical and mental labor. This distribution resulted from the expansion of corporations beyond national boundaries. To improve efficiency multinational companies locate their production in regions where trade is more profitable. At the same time, transport costs are reduced. Nowadays, production is located far from the source of raw materials or the consumer. The profit belongs to the parent company located in another country.
• The economy and labor productivity are developing, which is changing consumption patterns. After a stable supply of necessary goods has been established, there is an active increase in the consumption of services, and the consumption of goods decreases slightly.
• Most services are consumed locally, and even a reduced price for a haircut in one country is unlikely to affect the price in another. But now information is a mass commodity, which allows the development of distance trading.
• By their nature, some services cannot increase productivity. For example, a taxi driver cannot drive two cars at once. If demand increases, the car will become a bus or the number of taxi drivers will increase. However, with mass industrial production, the number of products produced by one person constantly increases. Therefore, there are more workers in the service sector.

Social structure

A characteristic feature of such a post-industrial society is strengthening the meaning of a person. Labor resources are changing their structure: physical labor is decreasing, mental, highly qualified and creative labor is increasing. The costs of training workers are growing: it is necessary to provide them with training and education, and improve their skills. It is known that in the United States, “man of knowledge” accounts for 70% of all employees.

"Class of professionals"

Some researchers formulate the characteristic of a post-industrial society as a “society of professionals.” In him the main class are intellectuals, where power belongs to the intellectual elite, whose representatives at the political level become consultants, experts or technocrats. The division of society based on education is already clearly visible.

“Knowledge workers” will not be the majority, but they are already the leading class of the “knowledge society.”

Wage labor: change in status

The main means of production in a post-industrial society is employee qualifications. In this case, the means of production belong to the employee, and therefore the value of employees is high for companies. The relationship between the employer and the knowledge worker becomes a partnership, and dependence on companies is sharply reduced. The structure of the corporation is changing from a central hierarchical to a hierarchical network, where increasing the independence of the hired employee plays a role.

IN large companies all working and even managerial positions are occupied by hired employees who are not owners.

Creativity is important

Some researchers argue that industrial society enters a post-economic phase of development, when the dominance of the economy begins to fade. The production of material goods becomes non-main, and the main form of human activity becomes development of abilities. IN developed countries There is a tendency for self-expression due to a decrease in material motivation.

However, post-industrial economy There is less and less need for unskilled labor, which increases difficulties for the population whose educational level does not reach the new standards. A situation arises where the growth of the unskilled part of the population reduces the power of the country's economy, rather than increasing it.

Points of view on the new society are multipolar. Thus, some researchers believe that the world in the 21st century looks quite autonomous, can control the production of technologies, and also provide itself with industrial and agricultural products. It is relatively free of raw materials and also self-sufficient in trade and investment.

Others are confident that success modern economy temporary. It was achieved thanks to unequal relations between developed countries and regions of the planet, which provided them with cheap labor and raw materials. Excessive stimulation of the financial and information sphere of the economy to the detriment of material production led to a global economic crisis.

Features of post-industrial society

About thirty years ago, a new concept was formed in Western sociological theory, the founders of which came to the conclusion that by the end of the 60s of the 20th century, society began to lose many important characteristics of the industrial system and acquire new features that, if assessed in their entirety, allow us to talk about the formation of a qualitatively different society.

Analyzing the social changes taking place in the modern world, we believe it is possible to evaluate them as forms of the formation of a qualitatively new type of society, which we call post-economic.

An outstanding contribution to the definition of the most important characteristics of Western society in the last quarter of the 20th century belongs to D. Bell. He, in particular, comprehensively substantiated the conditionality of these features by the new role of theoretical knowledge, which has turned into main source technological innovations, the transition from the production of primarily goods to the production of primarily services, the dominance of the professional and technical class over the traditional proletariat, as well as the emergence of intelligent technologies that provide the key to rational planning of technological and social development. At the same time, Bell, who to this day remains, in my opinion, the most subtle and methodologically correct researcher of the problems of post-industrialism, noted that “post-industrial society... is an “ideal type”, a construction compiled by a social analyst on the basis of various changes in society that , brought together, become more or less interconnected and can be contrasted with other “concepts.” He emphasized that “the concept of post-industrial society is an analytical construct, and not a picture of a specific or concrete society.”

The formation of a post-economic society is the result of a slow social evolution, during which technological and economic progress is embodied not so much in an increase in the volume of produced material goods, but in a person’s changing attitude towards himself and his place in the world around him. Material progress, of course, is a necessary condition for the formation of a post-economic order; However, a sufficient condition is a change in a person’s value orientations, the maturation of a situation when the main aspiration of an individual becomes the improvement of its internal potential. More than a hundred years ago, A. Marshall defined work as “any mental or physical effort, wholly or partially aimed at obtaining some other benefits other than the pleasure of the work process itself.” Agreeing with this definition, it can be argued that post-economic society arises there and then, where and when labor is overcome as an activity dictated exclusively by external material necessity, and is replaced by activity, the driving force of which is the desire of man to “become what he can be, his desire to correspond to his inner nature”

Post-industrial society has the following characteristics:

Man is removed from direct production (as Marx foresaw this), becomes close to production, controls and regulates it, using what is given only to man - reason;

The social organization of production is changing in accordance with its scientific and technical nature: mass intellectual labor requires the priority of the worker’s personality, which means that the impersonal economic coercion of the era of “classical” capitalism is being supplanted because it becomes economically unprofitable;

Intellectual labor restores the dominance of the worker over the means of production, and this entails a decrease in the economic significance of property relations over the means of production in the life of society;

As a result, a new economically homogeneous structure of society arises (after all, now only 10-15% of the working population is employed in the sphere of direct material production, while 80-85% is engaged in intellectual work and service work), this also creates social homogeneity based on the predominance of joint-stock forms of production ;

Economic and social homogeneity generates political stability in public life;

An important feature of a post-industrial society is the satisfaction of the material needs of the bulk of the population (for food, housing, clothing, transport), and this, by the way, is the only type of human needs that has a saturation limit (domestic economic theory associated this level of saturation with the advent of “communism”, But it turned out that post-industrial production can cope with this task).

Of course, “post-industrial society” is not a socio-economic characteristic: some consider it

still capitalist, others - genuine socialism, others - a “mixed” society in which there are both capitalist and socialist features.

All countries of the world are undoubtedly affected by the changing external environment. In addition, internal changes occurring in each country, accumulating in economic, social, political, cultural structures, ultimately cause significant changes in all areas, changing the qualitative state of the entire society. It follows that industrial society inevitably had to be replaced by some new social, economic and political state. Most researchers call this era of social development post-industrial.

One of the first to substantiate the concept of post-industrial society was Daniel Bell (1973). He contrasted the concept of “post-industrial society” with the concepts of “pre-industrial” and “industrial” society. If pre-industrial society was mainly mining and was based on agriculture, mining, fishing, logging and other resources, including natural gas or oil, and industrial society is primarily producing nature, using energy and machine technology to produce goods, then post-industrial society is processing, here the exchange of information and knowledge occurs mainly through telecommunications and computers.

Bell believes that in the 1970s. modern industrial society, due to the rapid development of science and technology (they are the main driving forces), has entered a new stage - the stage post-industrial society. This society, in comparison with the industrial one, has acquired new signs, namely:

• 1. the central role of theoretical knowledge. Every society has always relied on knowledge, but only today the systematization of the results of theoretical research and materials science are becoming the basis of technological innovation. This is noticeable primarily in new, knowledge-intensive industries - the production of computers, electronic, optical equipment, polymers, production that marked the last third of the 20th century with its development;
• 2. creation of new intellectual technology. New mathematical and economic methods, such as computer linear programming, Markov chains, stochastic processes, etc., serve technological basis modeling, simulation and other tools of system analysis and decision theory that allow us to find more effective, “rational” approaches to economic, technical and even social problems;
• 3. growth of the class of knowledge bearers. The fastest growing group in society is the class of technicians and professionals. In the United States, this group, together with managers, accounted for 25% in 1975 work force- 8 million people. By the year 2000, Bell argued, the technical and professional class would be the largest social group;
• 4. transition from the production of goods to the production of services. In the 1970s Already 65% ​​of those working in the United States were employed in the service sector, and this figure continues to grow. The service sector existed in both pre-industrial and industrial societies, but in post-industrial society new types of services appeared, primarily services in the humanitarian field (mainly in health care, education and social security), as well as the services of technical specialists and professionals (for example, in conducting research and evaluation, working with computers, performing systems analysis);
• 5. changes in the nature of work. If in a pre-industrial society life was the interaction of man with nature, when people, uniting in small groups with hard work, obtained food for themselves on the land, in the water or in the forest and were completely dependent on the vagaries of the external environment, if in an industrial society labor was already the interaction of man with a transformed nature, when in the process of producing goods people become appendages of machines, then in a post-industrial society work is primarily an interaction between people (between an official and a visitor, a doctor and a patient, a teacher and students, or between members of research groups, office employees or service team workers ). Thus, nature and artificially created objects are excluded from the labor process and everyday practice, and only people who learn to interact with each other remain. In the history of human society, this is a completely new, unparalleled situation;
• 6. the role of women. In industrial society, it was mostly men who worked. Post-industrial society (for example, humanitarian services) provides ample employment opportunities for women. Women for the first time received a secure basis for economic independence;
• 7. science reaches its mature state. Emerging in the 17th century, that is, even in pre-industrial society, the scientific community was a unique social institution. Unlike other charismatic communities (religious groups, messianic political movements), it does not “routinize” its beliefs and does not elevate them to the rank of official dogmas. In post-industrial society, the connection between science and technology has significantly strengthened; it has also become an integral part of the military sphere and largely determines social needs;
• 8. situses as political units. In the previous state of society, the main role was played by classes and strata, that is, horizontal units of society that entered into relations of superiority and subordination with each other. In post-industrial society, according to Bell, situses (from the Latin situ - position, position) or vertically located social units have become more important nodes of political connections. There are four functional situs (or horizontal social groups): scientific, technical (that is, applied professions - engineering, economics, medicine), administrative and cultural and five institutional situses (vertical social units) - economic enterprises and government agencies, universities and research centers, social complexes (hospitals, social service centers) and the army. The state of post-industrial society and its politics are determined not by classes, but by competition between situses or vertical units of society;
• 9. meritocracy(from Latin meritos - benefit). In a post-industrial society, a person can take his position not so much by the right of inheritance or property (as in pre-industrial and industrial society), but rather due to education and qualifications, on the basis of personal achievements;
• 10. the end of limited goods. Most socialist and utopian theories attributed all the ills of society to the shortage of goods and the competition of people for the missing goods. In a post-industrial society, Bell believes, the shortage of goods will disappear, there will only be a shortage of information and time;
• 11. economic theory information. In an industrial society, in the production of individual goods, preference must be given to the competitive system, otherwise enterprises lose activity or become monopolists. In a post-industrial society, there is an opportunity to optimally invest in knowledge, the production of which is collective in nature, an opportunity that allows it to be more widely disseminated and used.

Let us emphasize that, according to Bell, changes and improvements in ideal structures (knowledge, people’s ideas about new technologies) entail changes in the social structure of society. Unlike industrial society, in post-industrial society the social structure consists not only of horizontal layers (classes, social strata), but also of vertical structures - situses. In a schematic form, Bell draws the following socio-political structure of post-industrial society:

I.CmamycHbie groups: the axis of stratification is based on knowledge (horizontal structures):

A. Professional class - four estates:

• 1.scientific;
• 2. technological (applied types of knowledge: engineering,

economic, medical);

• 3. administrative;
• 4. cultural (artistic and religious activities).

B. Technicians and semi-professionals.

B. Clerical and sales workers.

D. Craftsmen and semi-skilled workers (“blue collar”).

//. Situs groups: areas of application professional activity(vertical structures):

A. Economic enterprises and commercial firms;

B. Government (legal and administrative bureaucracy);

B. Universities and research institutes;

G. Social sphere(hospitals, consumer services, etc.);

D. Military.

III. Control system: political organization of society:

A. The highest echelon of power

• 1.presidential office;
• 2. leaders of the legislative branch;
• 3. heads of bureaucracy;
• 4. senior military leadership.

B. Political groups: social associations and pressure groups:

• 1.batch;
• 2. elites (scientific, academic, business, military);
• 3.mobilized groups: a) functional groups (business, professional, groups identified on the basis of the specifics of work);
• b) ethnic groups;
• c) narrowly focused groups:
  • - functional (city mayors, poor people, etc.);
  • - groups of people with specific interests (youth, women, and

According to Bell, “a new social structure, unlike what K. Marx argued, does not always arise in the depths of the old one, but in some cases, outside it. The basis of feudal society was made up of nobles, landowners, military men and clergy, whose wealth was tied to land ownership. Bourgeois society, which began in the 13th century, was made up of artisans, merchants and free professionals, whose property consisted of their skill or their willingness to take risks and whose earthly values ​​were completely incompatible with the fading theatricality of the knightly lifestyle. However, they originated outside the feudal landowning structure, in free communities or cities, which by that time had already freed themselves from vassalage. And these small, self-governing communities became the basis of European commercial and industrial society. The same process is happening at the present time. The roots of post-industrial society lie in the unprecedented influence of science on production, which arose mainly during the transformation of the electrical power and chemical industries at the beginning of the 20th century... Based on this, we can say that the scientific class - its form and content - is a monad containing a prototype of the future society.”

According to Bell, social structure post-industrial society in comparison with industrial society will not be simplified, but will become even more complicated. If utopian theorists, who dreamed of universal social equality, saw progress in artificial equalization social statuses different social groups, then the realities of post-industrial society have not only complicated, but continue to complicate its social structure. This trend follows from the process of rapid development of knowledge and education, constant complication, ever-increasing diversity of human activity, division of labor, multiplication of specialties and

specializations.

The struggle of traditional classes moved from the economic sphere to the political one. This is where the redistribution continues

produced product and specific and ethnic interest groups (poor and black) seek, by receiving government assistance, to make up for their low status in economic sphere.

Second important changes in the social structure of post-industrial society lies in the formation, in addition to status, that is, horizontal and also situs or vertical structures. If in an industrial society status and status social structures coincide (for example, businessmen, taken as a class, are focused exclusively on enterprises), then in a post-industrial society members of the four professional status classes are part of different situations. Scientists can work in enterprises, government, universities, the service sector or the military. The same can be said about engineers, economists, medical workers, and managers. Because of this scattering of representatives of each social group across different situation groups, the likelihood of a pure corporate consciousness capable of a strong political exit (for example, lobbying for one’s class interests) tends to decrease.

All this democratizes society. A person’s position in it is no longer determined by capital, but by his knowledge, skills and the quality of the benefit that he brings to people. According to Bell, the very essence of society will change, which should be called not capitalist, in which power belongs to the owners of the means of production, but meritocratic, in which power is wielded by people who bring not personal, but public benefit, who work to obtain their own profit, but to increase public wealth. In this sense, that is, in the sense of the distribution and redistribution of power, Bell’s concept of “meritocracy” comes close to the concept of “democracy”.

The development of society, according to Bell, determines the interaction of its three main spheres: technical-economic, political and cultural. The main changes are taking place primarily in the technical and economic sphere. But this area itself is strongly influenced by developing science and knowledge, and only then has an impact on politics and culture. Historically, Bell argues, science has been a force for freedom. Therefore, in a post-industrial society, science, having become a leading force, will be able to provide democratizing influence(emphasis added - B.I.) both on the political system and on society as a whole.

The transition to a post-industrial society has already begun and its features were quite clearly visible in America already in the 1970s. Other developed countries are also moving towards post-industrialism. In addition to the United States at the end of the 20th century, according to Bell, Western Europe, Japan and the USSR should become post-industrial.

Another American political scientist, Zbigniew Brzezinski, defines similar features for post-industrial society. In his work “Between Two Eras: America’s Role in the Technotronic Era” (1970), he argues that humanity has passed through two eras in its development: (agrarian and industrial) and is entering a third era - technotronic(that is, techno-oriented - B.I). He calls technotronic “a society that is shaped in its cultural, psychological, social and economic aspects by the influence of technology and electronics, especially in the field of computer technology and communications.” The features of Brzezinski's technotronic society are very reminiscent of Bell's post-industrial society, namely:

• - the goods industry is giving way to a service economy;
• - the role of knowledge and competence, which become instruments of power, is growing;
• - therefore, those who want to “stay afloat” in such a society need study and self-education throughout their lives;
• - the life of the broad strata is boring (rationalized production during the day, television in the evening). Hence the important role of leisure: the development of show business, the games and entertainment industry, sports, tourism, etc.;
• - universities, research centers directly determine changes and the entire life of society;
• - the role of ideology decreases with increasing interest in universal human values;
• - television involves the broad masses, previously passive, into political life;
• - the participation of broad layers in making socially important decisions becomes relevant;
• - economic power is depersonalized (the manager is not the owner, but an employee. The enterprise belongs to those who own shares);
• - interest in the quality of life increases, and not just in ordinary material well-being.

So, Bell’ and Brzezinski consider the main factor of socio-political changes leading to post-industrial democracy to be scientific, technical and economic, and ultimately, technotronic. In this sense, they continue the tradition of the technocratic movement, which originated in the 1920-1930s. in USA. The leaders of this movement, G. Loeb and G. Scott, believed that social production can be regulated on the principles of scientific and technical rationality, the carriers of which should be professional communities of scientists, teachers, architects, ecologists, doctors, economists, and engineers organized on a national scale. In the 1940s the ideas of Loeb and Scott were developed by James Burnham. In the monograph “The Revolution of Managers” (1941), he asserted technocracy, that is, the power of production managers, as a socio-political force capable of not only ensuring the sustainable industrial development of society, but also creating a qualitatively new political system of a post-industrial society.

In the same vein of technocratic development of post-industrial democracy, the French jurist and political scientist Maurice Duverger argued, who introduced the concept "technodemocracy". Technocracy, as the rule of only a rationalistically thinking elite, according to Duverger, does not exist, however, after the dominance of liberal democracy (1870-1914) and its crisis (1918-1939), it arose new form political organization of society and the state, which included technocratic elements in combination with the surviving elements of liberal democracy (political freedoms, pluralistic ideology, humanistic cultural traditions) and with a new oligarchy represented by the owners of production, people in the technostructure of corporations and government officials. At the same time, the owners of production (capitalists) and people of the technostructure (managers-technocrats) strive not only to manage their corporations, but also through government agencies participate in the governance of the country, determine the prospects for its development. Together with government officials, they participate in long-term planning and making important political and economic decisions. From these three groups of managers (capitalist-owners, technocratic managers and state managers) the management (economic) technostructure. Another structure of technodemocracy is political technostructure is formed in the process of cooperation between ministers, party leaders, leaders of trade unions and pressure groups, senior government officials, leading experts in the process of preparing important government decisions. As a result of the activity of economic and political technostructures, their interaction and, to some extent, fusion, a technodsmocratic organization of society is formed, which Duverger likened to the two-faced Janus - the deity of the ancient Romans. Duverger's work on technodemocracy is called “Janus. Two Faces of the West" (1972) 2".

Other authors, when developing the concept of post-industrial society, focus on the axiomatic aspect. In their opinion, the main the shift occurs in a change in values, which people of post-industrial society are guided by. K. Kenigston, for example, argues that a significant mass of young people in modern developed countries strive to “search for a world located on the other side of materialism, to renounce careerism and acquisitiveness.” 253

In general, political culturologists, speaking about a society following the industrial one, prefer to talk in the categories of “modernity” - “postmodernity” or “materialist society” and “postmaterialist society”.

“Modernization,” argues Ronald Inglehart, “is not the final stage of history. The emergence of an advanced industrial society leads to another very special shift in basic values ​​- when

The importance of instrumental rationality characteristic of industrial society decreases. Postmodern values ​​are becoming predominant, bringing with them a number of diverse societal changes, from equal rights for women to democratic political institutions(emphasis mine - B.I.) and the decline of state socialist regimes."

Shifting Societies to postmodern values not a random twist of history or kink political development. This shift, from Inglehart’s point of view, is commensurate with the transition of humanity from an agrarian society to an industrial one, when the worldview formed by a fixed-stable agrarian economy, based on the religious nature of life, traditions, inherited status, and obligations to the community, changed. The modernist attitude brought with it a secular lifestyle, social mobility, stimulation of innovation, and individualism. Currently, according to Inglehart, post-industrial societies are changing their socio-political trajectories in two fundamental ways.

• 1. Regarding the value system. With the adoption of modernist, materialistic, industrial values the economic growth began to be equated with progress, that is, with the main criterion for the success of society. But nowadays this is increasingly being questioned, and the criterion of success is being replaced by an emphasis on the quality of life. Such norms of industrialism as discipline, self-sacrifice, achievements in society give way to the norms of post-industrialism: broad freedom, choice of life style, social circle, individual self-expression.
• 2. Regarding the institutional structure. Post-industrial, post-modern values ​​change social relations within the industrial, hierarchical, bureaucratic organizations that served as the support of industrialism. The state, political parties, mass assembly lines, and the structure of industrial corporations and trading firms are changing. All of them have approached both the limits of their effectiveness and the limits of their mass acceptance.

• - respect for power and political authorities, as exponents of obsolete values, as symbols of a passing era, is falling;
• - there is an increasing emphasis on political participation and on the transition from participation through political parties to more autonomous and individual types of it, such as exchanging opinions via the Internet instead of lsbats in party clubs, organizing protest actions via the Internet instead of participating in actions organized by parties and trade unions, individual voting via the Internet instead of participating in general voting at polling stations;
• - the goal of political participation is not the achievement of material wealth and a secure existence, but self-expression, demonstration of one’s own lifestyle, different from the style imposed by mass culture;
• - the craving of individuals for self-expression increases, which manifests itself in the entire appearance, behavior of people of post-material values, the nature of their communication, their attitude towards people of material values;
• - political conflicts are less and less of a class nature and focus on issues of culture and quality of life.

These trends contribute to:

• -in societies with an authoritarian political culture - democratization, but in an environment of too rapid changes and uncertainty about the future - outbreaks of xenophobia;
• - in democratic societies - the development of a democratic culture along the path of greater participation and focus on specific problems.

The core of Inglehart's theory of postmaterialist culture is the theory of intergenerational change in values, according to which humanity will move from modern industrial and materialist values ​​to postmaterialist values ​​gradually, from generation to generation.

Very interesting from the point of view of the study of democracy is comparative analysis Inglehart modernization and postmodernization. He believes that in the era of Post-Industrialism the process of modernization was replaced by a process postmodernization. These processes differ in four important ways:

• 1. social transformations in the process of postmodernization lose their linear and progressive nature, that is, they do not follow one direction and constant increment until the end of history. On the contrary, sooner or later they reach a turning point. In recent decades they have been going in a completely new direction;
• 2. previous versions of the theory of modernization were deterministic in nature: Marxism emphasized economic determinism, and Weber’s theory leaned toward cultural determinism. From the point of view of postmodernization theory, the relationships between economics, on the one hand, and culture and politics, on the other, are complementary, as is the case between various systems biological organism. It makes no sense to ask what determines the activity of the human body: the muscular system, the circulatory system, the nervous system or the respiratory system; each of them plays its own, vital role. Likewise, political systems, as well as economic ones, require support from the cultural system, otherwise they would have to rely on outright coercion. Conversely, a cultural system that is incompatible with the economy is unlikely to be viable. If all these systems do not support each other on a mutual basis, they are in danger of dying out;
• 3. Proponents of postmodernization do not agree with those who equate modernization with “Westernization.” At one point in history, modernization was indeed a purely Western phenomenon, but today it is quite clear that this process has become global in nature and that in a certain sense it was led by the countries of East Asia. This implies the proposal of postmodernization supporters to modify Weber’s thesis about the role of the Protestant ethic in economic development. Weber correctly understood the role of Protestantism, which, unlike other religions that held back economic development, brought rationalism and cold prudence during the modernization of Europe. However, as it turned out, representatives of other religions can also master rationalism and cold prudence for economic development. And industrialization, which began in the West, is today presented as one of the options for modernization;
• 4. democracy is by no means a phenomenon inherent in the modernization phase, as the supporters of this theory believe. Alternative consequences are also possible, with fascism and communism being the most striking examples. However, democracy does become increasingly likely as we move from modernization to postmodernization. At this second stage, a very special set of transformations is carried out that increase the likelihood of democracy to such an extent that, ultimately, one has to “pay dearly to avoid it.”

Postmodernization involves abandoning the emphasis on economic efficiency, bureaucratic power structures and scientific rationalism that characterized modernization, and marks the transition to a more humane society where greater scope is given to initiative, diversity and personal expression. 56

Postmodernization allows each member of society to make their own moral, social and political choices and, at the same time, requires state institutions and public structures to create real opportunities for this choice. Thus, postmodernization, like industrial modernization, creates new mass political and social institutions, but, unlike industrial modernization, it makes it possible not only for mass participation in the political process, but also individual choice of behavior style, social circle, new post-material values, new parties and other organizations raising new post-industrial problems

Another group of authors, exploring the features of post-industrialism, focuses on such a characteristic as the ever-increasing role of information. Some of them directly call the next post-industrial society informational.

For example, John Naisbitt discovered the following main changes or megatrends modern post-industrial and information society:

• - we have moved from an industrial society to a society based on the production and distribution of information;
• - we are moving towards dualism " technical progress(high tech) - spiritual comfort (high touch)”, when every new technology accompanied by a compensatory humanitarian response;
• -we no longer have access to the luxury of working within an isolated, self-sufficient national economic system; it is necessary to recognize that we are an integral part of the global economy;
• -we are transforming from a society governed by short-term considerations and incentives into a society focused on much longer-term prospects;
• -in cities and states, in small organizations and departments, we have rediscovered the ability to be innovative and get results - from the bottom up;
• - in all aspects of our lives we move from relying on the help of institutions and organizations to relying on our own strength;
• -we find that forms of representative democracy in the era of instantly disseminated information are outdated and need to be supplemented with forms of participatory democracy;
• -we stop depending on hierarchical structures and make a choice in favor of informal networks. This is especially important for the entrepreneurial environment;
• -the number of Americans living in the South and West, who have left the old industrial centers of the North to do so, is increasing;
• -from a society constrained by a rigid “either-or” choice, we are quickly turning into a free society with multi-choice behavior. 25

Participatory democracy and reliance more on one’s own strengths than on the help of government organizations, multivariate behavior, as well as reliance on post-material values, creates opportunities not only for mass participation in politics, but also for individual choice of political

allies and political programs, political leaders and political parties.

Alain Touraine called the society following the industrial communication or programmed society, because as a result of the rapid development of science and technology, it gains the opportunity to use complex information systems and communications, and also has significantly greater degree of mobilization than an industrial society. In industrial society, individuals were involved in controlled systems of collective organization almost exclusively in the sphere of employment, although sometimes - to a much lesser extent - in connection with housing. A post-industrial, programmed society is characterized by the fact that it introduces large centralized control systems into the most various areas public life, including in the information, educational, research spheres, even in the field of consumption and healthcare. Centralization of decisions and management of these and other areas makes it possible to create long-term programs and program the development of all spheres of society. The new society will be a society of programmed communications, but it does not reduce, but, on the contrary, significantly increases the possibilities of choice, because a programmed society has nothing in common with a society of unification and concentration of decision-making, with a society of political and ideological control. Programmed societies cause people, goods, and ideas to circulate to a much greater extent than previous societies did. In the political sphere, a post-industrial programmed society, as Touraine puts it, “allows and encourages greater interdependence between the mechanisms of domination.” If in an industrial society the basis of protest and, consequently, the political process was the idea of ​​justice, then in an industrial, programmed society such a basis will be the idea of ​​happiness, that is, “an all-encompassing concept social life based on taking into account the needs of individuals and groups in society." Consequently, the political arena in a programmed society is no longer associated with the labor movement, as in an industrial society, but with an actor who plays many roles, with an “actor,” with a specific person. This does not reduce, or even increases, the conflict potential of a programmed society, but, at the same time, increases its stability. As Touraine put it, “flames can break out anywhere, but society is less threatened than before by a huge fire.”

Manuel Castells sees the defining feature of the post-industrial information society in the presence of networks. Network structure of society is a complex of interconnected nodes, which include markets valuable papers and supporting institutions that serve them when it comes to the network of global financial flows, councils of ministers of various European states when it comes to political network structure, coca and poppy fields, clandestine laboratories, secret airfields, street drug dealers and financial institutions money launderers, when it comes to the production and distribution of drugs, television channels, studios, journalistic teams, technical television media, when it comes to the global network of new media that forms the basis for the expression of cultural forms and public opinion in

information age.

Networks, Castells believes, turned out to be institutions

contributing to the development of a number of areas, namely:

• -capitalist economy based on innovation, globalization and decentralized concentration;
• -the sphere of work with its workers and firms, based on flexibility and adaptability;
• -spheres of culture characterized by constant dismemberment and reunification of various elements;
• -spheres of politics focused on the instant assimilation of new values ​​and public attitudes;
• -a social organization that has set as its task “the conquest of space and the destruction of time.”

At the same time, the emergence of a network society acts as a source of far-reaching restructuring of power relations. “Switches” connected to networks (for example, when it comes to the transition to the control of financial structures of a particular media empire that influences political processes) act as instruments for the exercise of power, accessible only to a select few. Whoever controls such a switch has power.

One should not think that any changes in society and the state automatically lead to the strengthening and expansion of democracy. There are many critics of democracy who believe that modern socio-political and economic processes lead to distortion of democratic norms and institutions, paradoxical situations and conflicts. N. Bobbio, for example, put forward the thesis about “unfulfilled promises” or paradoxes of democracy, which boils down to the following:

• 1. Firstly (and most general view), the promise of popular sovereignty has not been fulfilled. As a result of the growth of state bureaucracies, this promise has completely exhausted itself. Thanks to the unlimited hierarchical and oligarchic tendencies of bureaucracies, the functional logic of bureaucracies organized on a large scale has completely exhausted itself. However, the proliferation of bureaucratic structures is closely related to the increasing pressure that democratic organizations and mass parties in particular are putting on state structures, especially within the framework of the welfare state.
• 2. The emergence of a pluralistic society, supported by the open and tolerant nature of democratic institutions, has led to the stifling of the postulate of individualism so important to democratic supporters of the social contract. Currently, individuals as the main subjects of the political life of modern democratic societies are increasingly being replaced by groups, large public and private organizations, parties, trade unions and professional organizations. If autonomy still has any strength as a postulate of democratic life, it should now be sought not in individuals, but in groups. An individual who is not associated with any organization is essentially deprived of any autonomous political subjectivity. As Bobbio puts it: “we demand ever higher levels of democracy in conditions that are objectively less and less conducive to democracy.”
• 3. The third paradox leading to the destruction of another

fundamental postulate of democracy, - expanding and

a widening gap between the lack of competence of individuals and increasingly complex problems and the need for technical solutions, which are available only to specialists. Scientific and technological progress is increasingly leading to the fact that the main actors scientists, experts or professional consultants, especially those associated with powerful and prestigious organizations, become political leaders. Meanwhile, the average, ordinary citizen is becoming an increasingly marginal figure. “Isn’t there any contradiction in demanding more and more democracy in a society that is increasingly determined by technology?”

4. Active participation in political life is also

an essential feature of democracy, however, in modern

democratic countries are experiencing massive spread

conformism and political apathy. This is facilitated by the development of mass communications and the intensive use of commercial and political propaganda, tools for manipulating voters.

5. Modern democratic regimes not only did not get rid of the presence of undemocratic elites and oligarchies, but also contributed to the development of corporations that represent group interests rather than public ones.

b. The acquisition of universal suffrage did not in any way affect the two “huge bodies of hereditary and hierarchical power” - the state bureaucracy and big business, and the latter cuts in half the sovereignty of citizens to give consent to decisions that affect not only the economic development of the entire society, but also decisions relating to institutions such as family, education, and healthcare.

7.Democracy was unable to make the system of governance completely transparent and public, in particular, to eliminate the so-called “invisible power” - the undemocratic secret activities of state institutions, secret agreements between states, the undemocratic activities of diplomatic, intelligence, secret and special services, etc.

Fareed Zakaria looked at the problems of developing and expanding the zone of democracy in the world from a different angle, but also stated the following contradictions of modern democracy:

The contradiction between constitutional liberalism, that is, the classical policy of constitutional democrats, and the course of modern democrats regarding increasing the scope of government powers. Constitutional liberalism has always insisted on limiting the power of the cabinet and implementing the concept of a “night stand” state, and modern democrats are pursuing a line of expanding the clan powers of the executive branch of government. For this reason, Zakaria notes, liberals of the 18th and 19th centuries. viewed democracy as a force capable of undermining freedom. The tendency of modern democratic governments to concentrate power, often through unconstitutional methods, can lead to its centralization and the formation of a model of power very reminiscent of a dictatorship;

the contradiction between majority rule and minority rights. This contradiction has been known since the times of A. de Tocqueville and J. Madison and was called the “dictatorship of the minority.” Today in developed Western countries this contradiction is not urgent, because the means of protecting the rights of individuals and minorities have been developed here. But in many developing countries this contradiction manifests itself quite acutely both in the violation of the rights of individuals and ethnic and religious minorities;

• - the contradiction between the peaceful nature of the democratic system and the increase in the number and size of ethnic and religious conflicts in new, especially multi-component democratic countries;
• - the contradiction between liberal democracies, that is, societies that have passed through a stage in their development when the ideas of classical liberal constitutionalism dominated, and illiberal democracies in which there is no constitutional liberal foundation. It is in countries of illiberal democracy that internal and external conflicts manifest themselves much more often and more acutely than in countries of liberal democracy. According to J. Snyder and E. Mansfield, over the past 200 years, non-liberal countries of democratic transition entered into wars much more often than liberal, stable ones

democracy.

post-industrial and information societies create a favorable environment for the development of democracy, that is, they act, according to our concept, as objective and subjective conditions, How positive driving forces of democracy, then paradoxes and contradictions distort democracy, slow down its formation and cause acute conflicts in society, that is, they act as negative factors. If in developed democracies positive factors predominate (although there are also negative ones), then in countries of democratic transition they are negative.

All of the above also applies to the development of the concept of post-industrial, technotronic, post-materialistic,

postmodern and information society. Here, too, there are concerns among scientists about the correctness of the path of modern developed democracies, especially in light of the problems of human survival at an ever-increasing pace economic development and social and cultural change. There are also pessimistic notes here when assessing progress.

In 1980, Alvin Toffler published his next book, The Third Wave. He reasoned, like Bell and Brzezinski, in the spirit of “the coming of the third era” (the first wave is agrarian, the second is industrial, the third wave is post-industrial).

The features of the future post-industrial civilization, in his opinion, are already quite clearly visible in our time and consist in:

• - the transition of society to a new, broader energy base, the use of various energy sources (energy of hydrogen, sun, tides, geothermal waters, biomass, lightning, new forms of nuclear energy, etc.);
• - transition to a new, more differentiated technological base, including less bulky and environmentally friendly technologies created using the results of the development of biology, genetics, electronics, materials science, deep-sea research and discoveries in space;
• -transition to a new information and computerized society;
• - the growing importance of information, which will become more valuable than ever and will reshape the education system and scientific research, reorganizes the media;
• - the disappearance of the cultural dominance of a few media. In post-industrial civilization, interactive ones will prevail, *** - see Zakaria Farid. The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy in the United States and Beyond. M., 2004, p. 101-120.

demassified means providing maximum variety and even personalized information requests;

• - future television will give rise to “individeo” - broadcasting in a narrow range, transmitting images addressed to one person. Other, new means of transmitting information from individual to individual will appear;
• - plants and factories of post-industrial civilization will bear little resemblance to enterprises of industrial society. Their main function will be virtually waste-free, high-tech production of a complete product to order, rather than the production of mass products. Such production will be managed not by workers and engineers, but by the consumers themselves, located at a great distance;
• - reducing the monotony of labor, the disappearance of conveyors, reducing the noise level. Workers will come and go at their convenience, and many will do their work from home. They will become more independent and self-sufficient in their decisions;
• - reducing the flow of papers sent from office to office. The main thing will be the process of joint decision-making;
• -replacement of expensive transport with cheap means of communication;
• - the center of civilization will not be an office, or even a university, but a home, a family, in which any member can receive any professional, educational or entertainment information;
• - the foundation of a new system of distribution of power, in which the nation as such will lose its importance, but other institutions will acquire much greater importance: from transnational corporations to local authorities;
• -the emergence of new religious movements, new scientific theories, new types of art, with greater diversity than in the society of the industrial era;
• -society achieves more high level diversity;
• - the emergence of a new understanding of nature by man.

In a post-industrial society, according to Toffler, innovations in technology and the changes they cause will reach such a pace that human biological nature will not keep up with them. People who have not adapted, who have not kept up with progress, remain on the sidelines of this process, seem to fall out of society, and therefore resist, take revenge on it, experience fear and shock from the future. Hence such social phenomena as vandalism, mysticism, apathy, drug addiction, violence, aggression. Tofflr sees a way out of this situation in a change in thinking, a transition to new forms of social life. New forms of social life will come, in his opinion, after the transition to the production of children according to given physical and intellectual characteristics. Then such social structures as family, marriage, such concepts as “motherhood” and “sex” will change.

The social roles of men and women will change. New forms of social life will emerge, such as group marriages and communes.

Despite the emerging pessimism regarding the survival of post-industrial society in a deteriorating environment, the possibilities of its development and human adaptation to it, most researchers of post-industrialism prefer to adhere to an optimistic tone. Thus, rapidly developing computer and telecommunication technologies led Edward Cornish to think about the future cyber society. Cornish's cybernetic society has features that are very reminiscent of the post-industrial, information, technotronic society described by his colleagues and devoid of alarmist sentiments, namely:

• - information Technology will take on weight in more portable and miniature forms. The time is not far off when a person will be able to carry the equivalent of hundreds of modern supercomputers in his pocket;
• -old inventions in the field of information technology will not be supplanted by their more modern rivals and will even succeed. Movies, television and the computer - each at one time - threatened the destruction of the book, but book publishers still publish and sell books to this day, including books about cinema, television and computers.
• -in the coming decades, the computer network and telecommunications network in general will expand significantly, which will have an important impact on the life of mankind;
• -Computers will take over most of our mental functions, just as machines in the past took over most of the hard physical work. New technology will help humanity solve many problems that previously perplexed it;
• -information technologies created in developed countries are rapidly spreading throughout the world. Computers enter millions of homes every year. In those countries where the development of information technology has not yet reached such heights as in developed countries, their growth in percentage terms will be even greater;
• - information technologies will take on increasingly portable and miniature forms. The time is not far off when a person will be able to carry the equivalent of hundreds of modern supercomputers in his pocket;
• -new information technologies will be adapted to the specific needs of people, their individual tastes. Telephone, TV and computer can be combined in one device;
• -old inventions in the field of information technology will not be supplanted by their more modern rivals and will even succeed. Books, television and the computer - each at one time - threatened to destroy the book, but book publishers still publish and sell books to this day, including about movies, television and computers.

These innovations in technology and technology, according to Cornish, will cause the following changes in the cultural, economic, social and political spheres:

• -human activity will be globalized due to cheap communications, fatally shortening distances and eliminating barriers between people. People living thousands of miles apart today already have the opportunity to work together, shop at a distance, regardless of state borders;
• -the globalization of the economy means that a metal bolt made in Malaysia must exactly fit a nut made in Thailand to connect separate parts made in South Africa and Chile. The globalization of the economy will increasingly intensify in accordance with the demands of the global market;
• -globalization of culture will lead to a decrease in the role of local cultures. Today there are several thousand languages; during the 21st century. 90% of them will disappear. Global computer networks and telecommunications will make English the dominant international language. People, if they want to go beyond national boundaries in their activities, will have to express their thoughts in English, which, in the end, may become native to the majority of the world's population;
• -at the same time, new cultures and new languages ​​will appear; We are talking about technical, scientific, industrial, sports, etc. communities that form their own jargon and customs;
• - information technology will free people from the need to settle close to work, which will increase the flow of migrants to countryside, closer to nature and an interesting cultural environment;
• - a large amount of time spent by a person in front of the TV and computer leads to a withdrawal from social communication, the disintegration of social and family ties, which leads to his bitterness and increased incidence of antisocial behavior;
• - information technologies significantly expand the possibilities of interactive learning, enrich the teaching methodology, and make it possible to significantly expand the number of educational programs;
• -the development of information technologies will limit the control over cyberspace of political systems and states, because people, without resorting to their help, will be able to communicate directly with each other;
• -computer networks will provide comprehensive information about legislation, administration, state politics, candidates from political parties and the parties themselves, the organization of elections, voting results, etc. Already today the problem of creating the so-called electronic government is being solved;
• -computers will assist in conducting the elections themselves; -information technology will make many countries more open. Already today, dissidents and human rights activists are using the Internet and electronic communications to expose violations of constitutions and laws;
• -but, information technologies are already being used today to misinform citizens both by governments and their political opponents, including terrorists. In this case, the main task of citizens will be to be able to distinguish truth from lies;
• -even today telecommunications equipment and computers create conditions for strengthening control over the population. It is important that the means of such control are used by governments for socially necessary purposes and do not violate human rights.

Of course, not all features of post-industrial democracy are uniquely positive. Like post-industrialism itself, which is a very contradictory, inconsistent and ambiguous phenomenon, its socio-political system, of course, is also contradictory, inconsistent and ambiguous. But the very movement of human society from industrialism to post-industrialism, to a new qualitative state of the political system and political culture of democracy and democratic values ​​is certainly a general result of the development of mankind, and is objective and irreversible.

• - Modern global problems of world politics / ed. M.M. Lebedeva. M., 2009, p. 239-246.
• - Bell Daniel. The coming post-industrial society. Experience in social forecasting. M., 1999, p. C.L. - Keniston K. Youth and Dissent. N.Y., 1971, p.128.
• 2Y - Cornish Edward. Cyberfuture / Ahead of the 21st century: Prospects, forecasts, futurologists. Anthology of modern classical prognostics. 1952 - 1999. Editor, compiler and author of the preface I.V. Bestuzhev. M., 2000, p. 191 - 206.

The transition to a post-industrial society is basically characterized by an increase in the share of the population category that is employed in the service sector. For example, in modern developed countries the distribution by main areas labor activity looks something like this: it takes up about 60%, agriculture - about 5% and industry up to 35%. If the coup is in latest industry and industrialization several centuries ago implied the replacement of manual labor with machine labor and the widespread spread of technological innovations - from the loom to machine-building factories - then post-industrial society is characterized by the outflow of a significant number of people from the production sector and their transition to the spheres of services, education and scientific knowledge. Once upon a time in Europe, workers' movements arose in a number of countries based on the idea that machines would replace people and deprive them of the opportunity to work in the industrial sector. Luddites and saboteurs tried their best to stop or delay technological progress. By the way, the word “sabotage” itself comes from the French name for a shoe (sabot), and with the help of them work was deliberately blocked. This idea finds its real embodiment today, when the development of technology really allows us to leave the lion's share material production and reduce the participation of people here to a minimum, which can be observed in the example of the advanced states of the planet: Spain, USA, Sweden, France and so on. At the same time, this does not at all mean depriving people of the opportunity to earn money; on the contrary, it makes life easier for them in many respects and allows them to simply move to other areas of activity. Let us formulate these features in more detail and structure.

In the economic sphere, post-industrial society is characterized by certain points. Namely:

• high level of use various information for the purpose of economic development;
• the dominance of the service sector;
• individualization of consumption and production;
• automation and robotization of almost all areas in management and production;
• cooperation with other living nature;
• active development of environmentally friendly and resource-saving technologies.

• the special role of education and science;
• development of an individualized type of consciousness;
• the need for continuous self-education.