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Economic efficiency new technology

The costs of producing new equipment are reduced mainly to capital investments for these purposes, and the results are to increase the volume of production, reduce its cost, improve quality, and increase labor productivity. Along with the new, already used, albeit on an insufficient scale, technology, there is the latest technology, which is at the initial stages of production and implementation. It includes, for example, fast neutron reactors, fifth-generation computers, the latest types of robots, etc. The latest technology requires large capital investments for development, transfer to mass production, promotion in areas of application, but can give a very significant effect in the future.

The new technique requires less capital investments for implementation and improvement, and gives a limited in size, but obtained in a short time and quickly implemented effect. The economic efficiency of new technology is determined by the same methods as the efficiency of capital investments, that is, by comparing the costs of new technology with the effect obtained from its use. The absolute (general) and comparative effectiveness of booty techniques differ. Absolute - is measured by the ratio of the effect obtained from the new technology (in the form of an increase in output and a decrease in its cost or an increase in profits) to the costs of its creation and implementation.

Comparative efficiency is used to select the optimal of the available options for new technology by determining the payback period for the difference in capital investments for the compared options due to savings on current costs or by comparing the reduced costs by options. The economic efficiency of new technology is calculated over the entire cycle of work on its creation and implementation, including scientific development, design and budgeting, production of a prototype and its testing, production and its implementation.

Efficiency is determined in relation to the maximum possible scale of implementation under optimal conditions and actually possible volumes for five years and years. At the same time, the following is calculated: cost reduction for the production of new equipment in comparison with the equivalent capacity of the old one; increase in output due to the use of new technology; increase in profits for the producer and consumer by increasing the volume of production, reducing costs and changing prices. The transition to the manufacture of new products is associated with additional costs for the development of the manufacturer, which at first can lead to a reduction in profits or losses. Additional costs for the use of new technology may also arise from consumers.

They are compensated by higher profits as the volume of production increases and the cost of production decreases. During the development period, increased costs and losses can be covered by bank loans. The price of new equipment should be set at such a level as to ensure the interest of producers in the production, and consumers - in the use of new technology. The use of new technology, in addition to improving self-supporting indicators, leads to the release of workers, easier and healthier working conditions, a reduction in the consumption of materials, including scarce ones, and an increase in the quality and reliability of products.

The planned economic efficiency of new equipment is determined according to the planned data on the volume of production, cost, return on capital investments. The actual efficiency may differ from the planned one when the scale of production, the prices of materials, the creation of new production areas change. The actual efficiency is compared with the planned one, as well as with indicators calculated based on the invariance of the technical base and production volume.

Introduction.......... ............................................................................................................................3

Chapter 1. Innovation activity …………………………………………………………………………………5

1.1 Innovations, their economic entity and value………………………………………………………5

1.2 Classification of innovations…………………………………………………………………………………….8

1.3 The role of innovation in enterprise development………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chapter 2. Performance indicators of new equipment and technology………………………………….17

2.1 Innovation as an object of enterprise activity……………………………………...17

2.2 Management, planning and organization of innovation activities………….….18

2.3 Evaluation of the effectiveness of an innovative project……………………………………………………………………………………………………………22

Chapter 3

3.1 History of nanotechnology development …………………………………………………….…24

3.2 advances in nanotechnology…………………………………………………………………………………………..27

3.3. perspectives of nanotechnologies…………………………………………………………………………………………………………32

4. Conclusion (Conclusion)…………………………………………………………………………………………………...…34

References……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……35

Introduction.

Possible ways to create a favorable innovation climate in the Russian economy began actively in the early 80s, even before the collapse of Soviet Union. Even then it became obvious that operating mechanisms“implementation” of the results of research and development is inefficient, the innovative activity of enterprises is low, and the average age of production equipment has been constantly increasing, reaching 10.8 years by 1990.

Since then, a number of state concepts for regulating and stimulating innovation activity have been adopted, the creation of a national innovation system has been announced, a number of mechanisms for state financing of innovation have been created, including the creation of an infrastructure for innovation activity. The main problem as long as there is a disconnect between the main participants in the innovation process (developers and consumers of innovations), information opacity and therefore low motivation, both for the development and financing of innovations.

In official statistics, technological innovations are understood as the final results of innovative activities that have been embodied in the form of a new or improved product or service introduced on the market, a new or improved technological process or a method of production (transfer) of services used in practical activities. All the formalized characteristics of this process depend on which definition of innovation is used. At present, there is no single approach to the definition of innovative activity, just as there were no continuous surveys of enterprises and organizations in which innovations would be studied. Existing estimates innovation activities are based on sample surveys of greater or lesser breadth, and this explains the frequent contradiction of their results.

An innovative enterprise is one that introduces product or process innovations, regardless of who was the author of the innovation - employees of this organization or external agents (external owners, banks, representatives of federal and local authorities, research organizations and technology providers, other enterprises ).

Thus, the purpose of this work is to give an idea of ​​the innovative activity of enterprises and its application in practice. And the main tasks are to understand the essence of innovation, to identify the types of innovation, and also to consider the impact of innovation on the development of an enterprise.

The object of this work is the enterprise as an economic entity, and the subject of innovation.

When studying the innovative activity of an enterprise, we used comparative analysis and method of data collection.

Chapter 1. Innovative activity

1.1 Innovations, their economic essence and significance.

It is necessary to distinguish between the terms "innovations" and "innovations". Innovation is a broader concept than innovation.

Innovation is an evolving complex process of creating, disseminating and using a new idea that improves the efficiency of an enterprise. At the same time, innovation is not just an object introduced into production, but an object successfully implemented and profitable as a result of scientific research or a discovery made, qualitatively different from the previous analogue.

Scientific and technological innovation must be viewed as a process of transforming scientific knowledge into a scientific and technical idea and then into the production of products to meet the needs of the user. In this context, two approaches to scientific and technological innovation can be distinguished.

The first approach mainly reflects the product orientation of the innovation. Innovation is defined as the process of transformation for the sake of output finished products. This direction is spreading at a time when the position of the consumer in relation to the producer is rather weak. However, the products themselves are not the ultimate goal, but only a means of satisfying needs. Therefore, according to the second approach, the process

scientific and technical innovation is seen as the transfer of scientific or technical knowledge directly to the sphere of meeting the needs of the consumer. In this case, the product turns into a carrier of technology, and the form it takes is determined after linking the technology and the need to be satisfied.

Thus, innovations, firstly, must have a market structure to meet the needs of consumers. Secondly, any innovation is always considered as a complex process, involving changes in both scientific and technical, and economic, social and structural nature. Thirdly, in innovation, the emphasis is on the rapid introduction of innovation into practical use. Fourth, innovation must provide economic, social, technical or environmental

The innovation process is the process of transforming scientific knowledge into innovation, which can be represented as a sequential chain of events during which innovation matures from an idea to a specific product, technology or service and spreads through practical use. The innovation process is aimed at creating the required markets for products, technologies or services and is carried out in close unity with the environment: its direction, pace, goals depend on the socio-economic environment in which it functions and develops. Therefore, only innovative way development, economic recovery is possible.

Innovative activity is an activity aimed at using and commercializing the results of scientific research and development to expand and update the range and improve the quality of products, improve their manufacturing technology with subsequent implementation and effective implementation in the domestic and foreign markets.

Innovation can be viewed as:

Process;

System;

Change;

Result.

Innovation has a clear focus on the end result of an applied nature; it should always be considered as a complex process that provides a certain technical and socio-economic effect.

Innovation in its development (life cycle) changes forms, moving from idea to implementation. The course of the innovation process, like any other, is due to the complex interaction of many factors. The use in business practice of one or another variant of the forms of organization of innovative processes is determined by three factors:

The state of the external environment (political and economic situation, type of market, nature of competition, practice of state-monopoly regulation, etc.);

The state of the internal environment of this economic system (the presence of a leader-entrepreneur and a support team, financial and material and technical resources, technologies used, size, current organizational structure, internal culture of the organization, relations with the external environment, etc.);

The specifics of the innovation process itself as an object of management.

Innovation processes are considered as processes that permeate all scientific, technical, production, marketing activities of manufacturers and, ultimately, focused on meeting the needs of the market. The most important condition for the success of innovation is the presence of an innovator-enthusiast, captured by a new idea and ready to make every effort to bring it to life, and a leader-entrepreneur who has found investments, organized production, promoted a new product to the market, took the main risk and realized your commercial interest.

Innovations form the market of innovations, investments - the market of capital, innovations - the market of competition of innovations. The innovation process ensures the implementation of scientific and technical results and intellectual potential for obtaining new or improved products (services) and the maximum increase in added value.

1.2 Classification of innovations.

To obtain a higher return on innovation, a classification of innovations is carried out. The need for classification, i.e. The division of the entire set of innovations according to certain characteristics into the appropriate groups is explained by the fact that the choice of the object of innovation is a very important procedure, since it predetermines all subsequent innovation activity, which will result in an increase in production efficiency, expansion of the range of high-tech products and an increase in its volumes.

The classification of innovations into appropriate groups is carried out using the following features.

On the basis of the emergence of innovations, two groups are distinguished: defensive and strategic.

The protective group of innovations provides the necessary level of competitiveness of production and products based on the introduction of relevant innovations as a way to protect against competitors.

Strategic forms promising competitive advantages.

According to the subject and area of ​​application of innovations, innovations are divided into product innovations (new products and materials), market innovations (new areas of product use, the possibility of implementing innovations in new markets), process innovations (technologies, new methods of organizing and managing production).

According to the degree of novelty of innovations, there are:

Non-standard groups of innovations, including a new product produced on the basis of a first developed technical solution, which has no analogue;

Improving - new products or technological processes developed on the basis of using the achievements of the scientific and technical process and providing perfect technical and operational characteristics in comparison with existing analogues;

modification - innovations that expand the operational capabilities of a product or process.

By the nature of satisfaction of needs, innovation groups are determined by innovations that satisfy new needs that have developed in the market.

In terms of the scale of distribution, innovations can be basic for young industries producing a homogeneous product, or used in all sectors of industrial production.

Despite the commonality of the subject of innovation, each of their implementation is very individual and even unique. At the same time, there are many classifications of innovations and, accordingly, the subjects of innovative entrepreneurship. Let's consider some of them.

G. Mensch singled out three large groups innovations: basic, improving and pseudo-innovations. Basic innovations, in turn, are divided into technological (forming new industries and new markets) and non-technological (changes in culture, management, public services). The movement from one technological stalemate to another occurs, according to Mensch, through the transition from basic innovations to improving ones and then to pseudo-innovations.

A detailed and original typology of innovations is given by A.I. Prigogine. He classified innovations depending on the type of innovations (material and technical and social innovations), the implementation mechanism, and the features of the innovation process. A. I. Prigozhin introduced into scientific circulation replacing, canceling, opening innovations, retro-innovations, single, diffuse, intra-organizational, inter-organizational, etc. He divided the concepts of "innovation" and "innovation". Innovation, according to A.I. Prigogine, is the subject of innovation; novelty and innovation have different life cycles; innovation is development, design, manufacture, use, obsolescence. Innovation, on the other hand, is the origin, diffusion, routinization (the stage when innovation is "realized in stable, constantly functioning elements of the corresponding objects").

The largest (basic) innovations - implement the largest inventions and become the basis for revolutionary revolutions in technology, the formation of its new directions, the creation of new industries. Such innovations require a long time and large expenses for their development, but they provide a significant national economic effect in terms of level and scale, but they do not occur every year;

Major innovations (based on a similar rank of inventions) form new generations of technology in this area. They are implemented in a shorter time and at lower cost than the largest (basic) innovations, but the leap in technical level and efficiency is relatively smaller;

Medium innovations implement the same level of invention and serve as the basis for creating new models and modifications of this generation of technology, replacing outdated models with more efficient ones or expanding the scope of this generation;

Minor innovations - improve individual production or consumer parameters of the produced models of technology based on the use of small inventions, which contributes either to more efficient production of these models or to an increase in the efficiency of their use.

M. Walker distinguishes seven types of innovations depending on the degree of use of scientific knowledge in them and wide application:

1) based on the use of fundamental scientific knowledge and widely used in various fields social activities (for example, computers, etc.);

2) also using scientific research, but having a limited scope (for example, measuring instruments for chemical production);

3) innovations developed using already existing technical knowledge with a limited scope (for example, a new type of mixer for bulk materials);

4) included in combinations of different types of knowledge in one product;

5) using one product per various fields;

6) technically sophisticated innovations that have emerged as a by-product of a major research program (for example, a ceramic saucepan created on the basis of research conducted as part of the space program);

7) using already known techniques or methods in a new field.

A generalized classification of innovations by features is given in Table. 1.1.

Table 1.1.

Generalized classification of innovations by features.

Of course, this classification is not exhaustive, but it should be noted that different kinds innovations are closely interrelated.

The classification gives specialists a basis for identifying the maximum number of ways to implement innovations, thereby creating a variant choice of solutions.

1.3 The role of innovation in enterprise development .

The innovative activity of the enterprise is aimed primarily at increasing the competitiveness of products (services).

Competitiveness - This is a characteristic of a product (service), reflecting its difference from a competitor product both in terms of the degree of compliance with a specific need, and in terms of the cost of satisfying it. Two elements - consumer properties and price - are the main components of the competitiveness of a product (service). However, the market prospects of goods are not only related to quality and production costs. The reason for the success or failure of the product may be other (non-commercial) factors, such as advertising, the prestige of the company, the level of service offered.

However, the service highest level creates great attraction. Based on this, the competitiveness formula can be represented as follows:

Competitiveness = Quality + Price + Service.

Manage competitiveness - means to ensure the optimal ratio of these components, to direct the main efforts to solve the following problems: improving the quality of products, reducing production costs, increasing efficiency and the level of service.

In essence, the basis of the modern "philosophy of success" is the subordination of the interests of the company to the goals of developing, manufacturing and marketing competitive products. The focus is on long-term success and on the consumer. Company executives consider profitability issues from the standpoint of quality, consumer properties, products, and competitiveness.

To analyze the position of a product on the market, assess the prospects for its sale, and select a sales strategy, the concept of "product life cycle" is used.

Simultaneous discounts with goods at different stages of the life cycle can only be large companies. Small firms are forced to follow the path of specialization, i.e. choose one of the following roles:

* an innovator firm dealing primarily with innovation;

* engineering: a company that develops original product modifications and epgo design;

* a highly specialized manufacturer - most often a sub-supplier of relatively simple mass-produced products;

* manufacturer of traditional products (services) of high quality.

Experience shows that small firms are especially active in the production of goods that are going through the stages of market formation and exit from it. The fact is that a large firm is usually reluctant to be the first to produce a fundamentally new product. The consequences of a possible failure for her are much harder than for a small newly formed firm.

Ensuring the competitiveness of a product requires an innovative, entrepreneurial approach, the essence of which is the search and implementation of innovations.

In this regard, it is interesting to note that one of the classics of economic theory, A. Marshall, considered entrepreneurship to be the fundamental property, the main feature of a market economy.

The main prerequisite for an innovation strategy is the obsolescence of manufactured products and technology. In this regard, every three years, enterprises should carry out certification of manufactured products, technologies, equipment and jobs, analyze the market and distribution channels for goods. In other words, there should be business radiograph.

Chapter 2 Efficiency indicators of new equipment and technology.

2.1 Innovation as an object of enterprise activity

In the process of innovative activity, an enterprise can function with the greatest efficiency only if it is clearly focused on a specific object and guided by the maximum consideration of the impact of external and internal environmental factors. For this, it is necessary detailed classification innovations, their properties and possible sources of financing. Such a classification of innovations as objects of enterprise activity is shown in Figure 1. The most characteristic indicators of innovations are such indicators as absolute and relative novelty, priority and progressivity, the level of unification and standardization, competitiveness, adaptability to new business conditions, the ability to modernize, as well as indicators of economic efficiency, environmental safety, etc. All these indicators are innovations are in fact the embodiment of indicators of the technical and organizational level of innovation and its competitiveness. Their significance is determined by the degree of influence of these factors on the final results of the enterprise: on the cost and profitability of products, their quality, sales and profits in the short and long term, the level of profitability economic activity. Indicators of the technical level of innovation determine the technical level of production as a whole. According to the degree of novelty, innovations are divided into fundamentally new, having no analogues in the past in the domestic and foreign practice, and innovations of relative novelty. For fundamentally new types of products, technologies and services, the indicator of their patent and license purity and protection is especially important, because they are not only intellectual products of the first kind, i.e. have priority, absolute novelty, but they are also an original model, on the basis of which, by replication, innovations-imitations, copies or an intellectual product of the second kind are obtained. An intellectual product is protected by property rights, which is why an enterprise needs patents, licenses, inventions and know-how to develop innovative activities. and domestic enterprises) and innovations - improvements. In turn, innovations - improvements according to the subject - content structure are divided into displacing, replacing, supplementing, improving, etc.

2.2 Management, planning and organization of innovation activities

Successful research stimulates an increase in funding, leading to the complete impossibility of further research.

Innovation management can be considered in three main aspects:

1. R&D management (the object of management is directly research and development).

2. Management of innovative projects (object of management - innovative projects).

3. Management of external conditions affecting the effectiveness of the implementation of innovative activities.

An innovation project covers the life cycle of an innovation from the moment an idea arises to the moment a product or process is discontinued. Such a project includes: R&D, mastering the production of the product and conducting trial sales, deploying mass or serial production and work on the sale of the product, maintaining production and sales, upgrading and updating the product, stopping its production.

An innovative project is essentially an investment project, the implementation of which requires a long-term binding of the main material and financial resources. However, in comparison with the "classical" investment project, the implementation of the innovative one is different.

1. Relatively lower reliability of preliminary economic evaluation due to the high degree of uncertainty of the project parameters (terms for achieving the set goals, upcoming costs, future income), which necessitates the use of additional evaluation and selection criteria.

2. The participation of highly qualified specialists and the use of unique resources, which, in turn, requires careful development of individual stages of the entire project.

4. The possibility of terminating an innovative project without physical binding of investments and, consequently, significant financial losses.

5. The likelihood of obtaining potential commercial value by-products, which, in turn, requires the flexibility of project management, the ability to quickly enter new business sectors, markets, etc.

The list of tasks to be solved in the process of innovation management is extremely wide. In relation to product innovations, it includes:

* market research;

* forecast duration, nature and stages of the life cycle of a new product;

* Research of conjuncture of the markets of resources.

Innovative marketing is a complex of marketing research and activities aimed at commercially successful implementation of products, technologies and services developed by the company.

Marketing in the innovation sphere has the following features:

* intersectoral nature of the result of innovation activity (ie the possibility of implementing innovations in various fields and fields of activity);

* Orientation to an experienced, sophisticated, often collective buyer;

* Mandatory after-sales service (associated with the technological complexity of science-intensive products);

* taking into account the scientific and technical level of a potential consumer, since many engineering innovations do not find a buyer due to the technological backwardness of the consumer.

Naturally, in the process of marketing research, the preliminary effectiveness of innovations is also determined, which means, first of all, economic efficiency, i.e. the ratio of costs and results of the implementation of an innovative project. Since profit is the main criterion for the activity of any enterprise, it is the indicators associated with it that should be decisive in the evaluation and selection of a project.

The effectiveness of innovations is evaluated on the basis of the following indicators:

* the cost of the project, taking into account the sources of its financing:

* net present value;

* the level of return on capital;

* internal rate of return;

* payback period of capital investments.

Innovative projects that go beyond traditional lines of business are difficult to evaluate in terms of return on investment, as they are associated with uncertainty. The problem is whether it will be possible to reduce the uncertainty of the project to risk categories, since the risk can be subject to a certain probability distribution law and therefore, in principle, be manageable.

Any risk can be quantified by the probability of an undesirable outcome occurring.

Each enterprise, regardless of the form of ownership and size characteristics, develops an innovative strategy. The main elements of the innovation strategy of the enterprise include:

Improvement of already manufactured products and applied technologies;

Creation and development of new products and processes;

Improving the quality level of the technical and technological, research and development base of the enterprise;

Improving the efficiency of using the personnel and information potential of the enterprise;

Improving the organization and management of innovation activities;

Rationalization of the resource base;

Ensuring environmental and technological safety;

Achievement in domestic and foreign markets competitive advantage innovative product compared to similar products.

When developing an innovation strategy, it is necessary to solve the following main problems:

Determining the type of innovation strategy that best suits the goals and market positions of the enterprise;

Ensuring compliance with the innovation strategy organizational structure, infrastructure and information management system at the enterprise;

Determination of success criteria at the earliest possible stages of the development of an innovative project;

Selection of the optimal procedure for monitoring and controlling the progress of the project.

2.3 Evaluation of the effectiveness of an innovative project

IN market economy in the development and implementation of innovations, the most common is not a normative, but a project approach.

The basis of the project approach to the activities of the enterprise, including its innovative and investment activity, lies the principle of cash flows (cash how). Wherein commercial efficiency activities for both the project and the enterprise; determined on the basis of methodological recommendations on evaluating the effectiveness of investment projects and their selection for financing”, approved by Gosstroy, the Ministry of Economy, the Ministry of Finance and the State Committee for Industry of the Russian Federation.

The following main performance indicators of the innovation project have been established:

* financial (commercial) efficiency, taking into account financial implications for project participants;

* budget efficiency, which takes into account the financial implications for the budgets of all levels;

* national economic efficiency, taking into account costs and results that go beyond the direct financial interests of the project participants and allow for monetary expression.

Methods for evaluating the effectiveness of the project

The evaluation of the effectiveness of the project is based on a comparative analysis of the volume of proposed investments and future cash flows. Compared values ​​refer in most cases to different time periods. Therefore, the most important; the problem in this case, as well as in determining the economic efficiency of new equipment and technology, is the problem of comparing income and costs and bringing them into a comparable form. The reason for the need to conduct a discounting process (i.e., bringing it into a comparable form) may be inflation, undesirable investment dynamics, a drop in industrial production, different forecasting horizons, changes in tax system etc.

Methods for evaluating the effectiveness of the project are divided into for the group, based on:

a) on discounted estimates;

b) on accounting estimates.

So, the methods for evaluating the effectiveness of a project based on accounting estimates (without discounting.) Are the payback period (Pau Back Period - PP), the investment efficiency ratio (Average Rate of Return - ARR) and the debt coverage ratio, (Debt Cover Ratio - DCR ).

Methods for evaluating the effectiveness of a project based on discounted estimates are much more accurate, since they take into account various types of inflation, changes in interest rate, rates of return, etc. These indicators include: the profitability index method (Profitability Index - Рl, net worth, otherwise called "net present value" (Net Present Ua1ue) and internal rate of return (Internal Rate of Return - IRR).

Traditional project evaluation methods are widely used in financial practice.

The return on investment method is very common. But its major drawback is that it ignores future value money, taking into account the income of the future period and, as a result, the inapplicability of discounting. In terms of inflation sharp fluctuations interest rates and a low rate of internal savings of an enterprise in the real Russian economy, this method is not accurate enough.

Nevertheless, attention should be paid to the methodology for calculating the investment efficiency ratio, understood as average profitability for the entire period of the project.

This ratio is calculated by dividing the average annual profit by the average annual investment. Of course, this indicator is compared with the rate of return on advanced capital (the result of the average net balance).

However, all three traditional measures based on accounting estimates do not take into account the time component of cash flows. They do not fit with factor analysis and the dynamics of cash flows in economic reality. Therefore, the most complete project can be evaluated using methods based on discounted estimates.

Chapter 3 Nanotechnology

3.1 History of development of nanotechnology.

1905 Swiss physicist Albert Einstein published a paper in which he proved that the size of a sugar molecule is approximately 1 nanometer.

1931 German physicists Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska created an electron microscope, which for the first time made it possible to study nano-objects.

1959 American physicist Richard Feynman gave his first lecture at the annual meeting of the American Physical Society, entitled "Toys on the floor of the room." He drew attention to the problems of miniaturization, which at that time was relevant in physical electronics, mechanical engineering, and computer science. This work is considered by some to be fundamental in nanotechnology, but some points of this lecture contradict the laws of physics.

1968 Alfred Cho and John Arthur, employees of the scientific division of the American company Bell, developed theoretical basis nanotechnology in surface treatment.

1974 Japanese physicist Norio Taniguchi at the international conference on industrial production in Tokyo introduced the word "nanotechnology" into scientific circulation. Taniguchi used this word to describe the ultra-fine processing of materials with nanometer precision, he proposed to call it mechanisms that are less than one micron in size. In this case, not only mechanical, but also ultrasonic processing, as well as beams of various kinds (electronic, ionic, etc.) were considered.

1982 German physicists Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer created a special microscope to study objects in the nanoworld. It was given the designation SPM (Scanning Probe Microscope). This discovery was of great importance for the development of nanotechnology, as it was the first microscope capable of showing individual atoms (SPM).

1985 American physicists Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smaley created a technology that allows you to accurately measure objects with a diameter of one nanometer.

1986 Nanotechnology has become known to the general public. American futurist Erk Drexler, a pioneer of molecular nanotechnology, published the book Engines of Creation, in which he predicted that nanotechnology would soon begin to develop actively, postulated the possibility of using nanosized molecules to synthesize large molecules, but at the same time deeply reflected all the technical problems that are now before nanotechnology. Reading this work is essential for a clear understanding of what nanomachines can do, how they will work, and how to build them.

1989 Donald Eigler, an employee of IBM, laid out the name of his company with xenon atoms.

1998 Dutch physicist Seez Dekker created the nanotechnology-based transistor.

1999 American physicists James Tour and Mark Reed determined that a single molecule is capable of behaving in the same way as molecular chains.

year 2000. The US administration supported the creation National Initiative in the field of Nanotechnology. Nanotechnology research received public funding. Then from federal budget$500 million has been allocated.

year 2001. Mark Ratner believes that nanotechnology became a part of human life in 2001. Then two significant events took place: the influential scientific journal Science called nanotechnology the “breakthrough of the year”, and the influential business magazine Forbes called it “a promising new idea”. Nowadays, in relation to nanotechnology, the expression “new industrial revolution” is periodically used.

Compositions and technology for producing new thin-film nanostructured materials based on zirconium and germanium double oxides, which have high chemical and thermal resistance and good adhesion to various substrates (silicon, glass, polycor, etc.), have been developed at Tomsk State University of Russia. The thickness of the films is from 60 to 90 nm, the size of the inclusions is 20-50 nm. The materials obtained there can be used as coatings:

Glasses (solar-protective - well transmits visible light and reflects up to 45-60% of thermal radiation, heat-shielding - reflects up to 40% of solar radiation, selectively transmitting);

lamps (increase in light output by 20-30%);

tools (protective and hardening - increasing the service life of products).

Work is also underway at V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. Directions of research: surface phenomena, phase transformations and the structure of condensed films. Research is carried out on films of metals and alloys (1.5 - 100 nm), obtained by condensation in vacuum on various substrates by electron microscopy (SPM), electron diffraction, as well as methods developed in the group (Gladkikh N.T., Kryshtal A.P. , Bogatyrenko S.I.)

3.2 achievements of nonotechnologies.

Liquid armor "will protect better than Kevlar?

A new type of uniform may soon appear in service with the United States, which, in terms of its protective properties and ergonomic characteristics, surpasses modern Kevlar counterparts.
The super-protection effect is achieved thanks to a special Kevlar bag filled with a solution of ultra-hard nanoparticles in a non-evaporating liquid. As soon as there is a high energy mechanical pressure on the Kevlar shell, the nanoparticles are collected into clusters, while changing the structure of the liquid solution, which turns into a solid composite. This phase transition occurs in less than a millisecond, which makes it possible to protect soldiers not only from a knife blow, but also from a bullet or shrapnel.

And recently, U.S. Armor Holdings, an American holding manufacturer of soldier's uniforms and body armor, licensed the technology<жидкого бронежилета>and plans to start mass production later this year.

Nanotubes in the regeneration of brain tissue and heart muscle

One of the most interesting achievements of scientists in the field of nanomedicine was the technology of repairing damaged nerve tissue using carbon nanotubes.

As experiments have shown, after implanting special matrices of nanotubes in a solution of stem cells into damaged areas of the brain, scientists discovered the restoration of nervous tissue already eight weeks later.
However, when using nanotubes or stem cells separately, there was no similar result. According to scientists, this discovery will help people suffering from Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.
Nanostructures can also help in rehabilitation therapy after acute heart disease. Thus, nanoparticles introduced into the blood vessels of mice helped restore cardiovascular activity after myocardial infarction. The principle of the method is that self-assembling polymeric nanoparticles help<запустить>natural vascular repair mechanisms.

Nanodiamonds - a new word in nanomedicine

The new nanoparticles, called nanodiamonds by scientists, could be used to efficiently transport healthy genes to diseased body cells, Nano Digest reports. Nanodiamonds are less toxic to the body than carbon nanotubes and are completely biocompatible. According to scientists, their discovery may become one of the promising methods of combating serious diseases, including cancer.

In modern medicine, the most commonly used method of transporting genes with the help of viruses, which in the course of evolution have developed very effective mechanisms for penetrating the cell. The reverse side of this method is the possibility of developing cancerous processes or even cell death.

Another delivery method is based on the use of polymer shells, which are less dangerous, but also much worse penetrating into cells. According to the researchers, nanodiamonds, which are easily dispersed in water and just as easily penetrate into cells, will help solve the problem of gene transport, without causing irritation inside it. Now the team of scientists is developing multifunctional nanodiamonds that can be used for imaging and subsequent drug delivery.

Nanotechnology will save world culture

If until now it was necessary to carry out the most complex operations to remove dust and dirt from ancient paintings, now the works of the masters will be cleaned without harm to art. The revolutionary method was developed on the basis of nanotechnologies, which today find application in the most unexpected areas.
Although nanotechnologies began to develop relatively long ago, until recently they remained in the shadows, as if gaining strength in order to declare themselves at the top of their voices. Today, the new industry is of increased public interest.
Nanotechnology operates with the smallest particles, the dimensions of which do not exceed thousands of nanometers (ten to the ninth meters). It is difficult to predict all the possibilities that new technology will provide us with - effective drugs, unique materials, miniature devices, and, as it turns out, this is not the limit.
Chemist Piero Baglioni from the University of Florence has developed a new method for cleaning works of art. Until now, even the most sensitive modern methods cleaning was accompanied by numerous problems - now all of them will be eliminated. This requires a sponge, a special gel and, oddly enough, a magnet.
Many current methods lead to slow deterioration of paintings. When removing stains, museum workers, despite their best efforts, often leave particles of cleaning agents on the picture.
Piero Baglioni claims to have found a way to solve these problems with a cleaning gel that can be removed with a magnet. "Our development will replace the old method," said Baglioni.
The gel consists mainly of a polymer (polyethylene glycol and acrylamide) impregnated with iron nanoparticles. In the course of work, the painting is cleaned with special detergents, then the place of contamination is covered with a new gel, which absorbs all the remnants of the cleaning agent from the surface of the painting.
The last step is to act on the gel, which is easily removed from the surface of the painting with a conventional magnet without destroying the work of art. Thus, nanotechnology will save cultural heritage for our descendants.

Microorganisms can produce nanotechnology

Can't we live for one day without hearing anything about bacteria and viruses? Maybe not, but we want to hear good news. Our use of the term "microscopic" is not likely to stop, and its use when talking about nanotechnology is just another example.

In 2004, researchers at the University of Texas at Austin tried to use the once-popular E. coli bacterium to create superconducting nanocrystals that may soon appear in a new generation of computers, optical PCs.

Tiny optical computers of the future may use optical signals instead of electronic ones to process data, and superconducting nanocrystals created by bacteria will act as light-emitting diodes (LEDS) needed to drive optical signals.

Viruses can also be obtained in nanotechnology laboratories. In 2006, MIT scientists tackled the problem of making small bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that can infect bacteria) to create nanowires that can be used in lithium ion nanobatteries.

Some nanomaterials can build themselves

The following example of the use of nanotechnology is perhaps one of the most impressive demonstrations of the potential of nanotechnology. Under certain conditions, molecules can grow and in the process are able to acquire various configurations (depending on their charge and other natural properties of molecular chemistry).

This simple process makes it possible to believe that self-assembling microcomputers are no longer science fiction.

Examples of complex self-formations are quite common. A group of Swedish researchers have literally grown nanowires by building a complex nanotree, which they plan to equip with solar "leaves" and get a kind of solar nanobattery.

In addition to facilitating fabrication, the real advantage of "growing" nanomaterials is that they remain homogeneous and are not affected by the inhomogeneities that can occur during the normal fabrication process.

A potential stumbling block could be the concern of those who fear that the process of self-assembly may become uncontrollable, leading humanity to the way it is shown in the Terminator trilogy.

3.3 Nanotechnology perspectives

1. Medicine. Creation of molecular robotic doctors that would "live" inside the human body, eliminating or preventing all damage that occurs, including genetic ones.
Implementation period - the first half of the XXI century.

2. Gerontology. Achieving personal immortality of people through the introduction of molecular robots into the body that prevent cell aging, as well as restructuring and improving the tissues of the human body. Revival and cure of those hopelessly ill people who were currently frozen by cryonics methods.
Implementation period: third - fourth quarters of the XXI century.
3. Industry. Replacement traditional methods production by the assembly of commodities by molecular robots directly from atoms and molecules.
Implementation period - beginning of XXI century.

4. Agriculture. Replacement of natural food producers (plants and animals) with similar functional complexes of molecular robots.
They will reproduce the same chemical processes that occur in a living organism, but in a shorter and more efficient way. For example, from the chain
"soil - carbon dioxide - photosynthesis - grass - cow - milk" all unnecessary links will be removed. Will remain "soil - carbon dioxide - milk
(cottage cheese, butter, meat)". Such "agriculture" will not depend on weather conditions and will not need hard physical labor. And its productivity will be enough to solve the food problem once and for all.

The implementation period is the second - fourth quarter of the XXI century.
5. Biology. It will become possible to introduce nanoelements into a living organism at the atomic level. The consequences can be very different - from
"restoration" of extinct species to the creation of new types of living beings, biorobots.

6. Ecology. Complete elimination of the harmful effects of human activity on the environment. Firstly, due to the saturation of the ecosphere with molecular orderly robots that turn human waste into raw materials, and secondly, due to the transfer of industry and Agriculture on non-waste nanotechnological methods.
Implementation period: mid-21st century.

7. Space exploration. Apparently, the exploration of space in the "usual" order will be preceded by its exploration by nanorobots. A huge army of molecular robots will be released into near-Earth outer space and prepare it for human settlement - make the Moon, asteroids, the nearest planets habitable, build space stations from "improvised materials" (meteorites, comets). It will be much cheaper and safer than the current methods.

8. Cybernetics. There will be a transition from the currently existing planar structures to volumetric microcircuits, the size of active elements will decrease to the size of molecules. The operating frequencies of computers will reach terahertz values.
Schematic solutions based on neuron-like elements will become widespread.
High-speed long-term memory based on protein molecules will appear, the capacity of which will be measured in terabytes. will become possible
"resettlement" of human intelligence in the computer.
Implementation period: the first - the second quarter of the XXI century.

9. Reasonable living environment. By injecting logical nano-elements into all attributes environment it will become "reasonable" and extremely comfortable for a person.
Implementation period: after the XXI century.

Conclusion

Innovative activity - a type of activity associated with the transformation of ideas-innovations into a new improved product introduced on the market; into a new or improved technological process used in practice; V new approach to social services.

The following main types of innovative activities are distinguished: instrumental preparation and organization of production, start-up of production and production development, including product and process modifications, retraining of personnel for the use of new technologies and equipment, marketing of new products; acquisition of intangible technology in the form of patents, licenses, know-how, trademarks, designs, models and services of technological content; purchase of machinery or equipment related to the introduction of innovations; production design necessary for the development, production and marketing of new goods, services; reorganization of the management structure.

The choice of the method and direction of innovative activity of an enterprise depends on the resource and scientific and technical potential of the enterprise, market requirements, stages of the life cycle of equipment and technology, and features of industry affiliation.

When designing, developing and implementing innovations, it is necessary to determine the necessary costs for their implementation, possible sources of financing, evaluate the economic efficiency of innovations, compare the effectiveness of various innovations by comparing income and costs.

Bibliography.

1. Gruzinov V.P., Gribov V.D. Enterprise economy: Tutorial. - M.: Finance and statistics, 2006.

2. Gruzinov V.P. Enterprise Economics: A Textbook for High Schools. – M.: Unity-DANA, 2005.

3. Sergeev I.V. Enterprise Economics: Textbook. – M.: Finance and statistics, 2007.

4. Sheremet A.D. Theory of economic analysis: Textbook. – M.: INFRA-M, 2006.

5. Economics of the enterprise: Textbook. / Ed. Safronova N.A. - M .: "Jurist", 2006.

6. Enterprise Economics: Textbook. / Ed. Semenova V.M. - M .: Center for Economics and Marketing, 2006.

7. Economics of the enterprise: Textbook for universities / Ed. V.Ya. Gorfinkel, E.M. Kupryakova. – M.: UNITI-DANA, 2007.

8. Economic theory: Textbook for university students / Ed. Kamaeva V.D. – M.: VLADOS, 2008.

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