The social and economic restructuring in Russia caused instability in the system-forming links of the previously existing mechanism. It was focused on the production of scientific and technical products. This, in turn, affected the economic situation of the country as a whole.

Scientific and technological progress (STP) and economic growth

The modern priorities of advanced states are determined not only by the volume of labor resources, mining industry, and natural reserves. This is what traditionally characterizes a country’s well-being. The degree of use of innovations in one or another sector is becoming increasingly relevant today. As is known, the economic growth characterizes the functioning of the entire economic system. Its indicators are used when analyzing the state national sector, in a comparative assessment of countries. The determining factor in this area is scientific and technological progress (STP). Let's look further at what it is.

NTP: definition and content

People first started talking about this form of development at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. What is NTP? Definition in general view can be formulated as follows:

Improvement caused by the needs of material production, the increase and complication of the needs of society.

The need for this process arose as a result of the strengthening of interaction between large machine industry and technology and science.

Controversies

They were a consequence of the relationship between science, technology and machine production. The contradictions affected two directions of development at once. In theory, therefore, they are divided into technical and social. With mass production of the same products over many years, it becomes possible to create automatic systems for expensive machines. Over a long period of operation, all costs are recouped. At the same time, there is a need for continuous improvement of the production facilities. This can be done either by upgrading them or replacing products. This situation is due to the acceleration of scientific and technological progress. This is the first contradiction. It occurs between the service life and the payback period. The social contradiction of NTP is an inconsistency associated with the human factor. On the one hand, innovations are aimed at facilitating working conditions. This is achieved through automation as a result of scientific and technical progress. This, however, causes monotony and monotony of work. The resolution of these contradictions directly concerns the strengthening of requirements for the improvement process itself. They are embodied in a social order. It acts as a form of expression of social strategic interests in the long term.

Evolution

Scientists talk about various factors that accompanied NTP. Their definition is of particular importance when analyzing social transformations. The importance of factors is related to their influence on changes in society. Together, these factors determine the features of scientific and technological progress, stages of development, and forms. The process can be either evolutionary or revolutionary. In the first case, scientific and technological progress is a relatively slow improvement of traditional production principles. IN in this case It's not about speed. The emphasis is on the rate of production growth. Thus, they can be low with revolutionary or high with evolutionary improvement. For example, you can consider labor productivity. As history shows, the rate of its growth is high in the evolutionary form, and low in the revolutionary form.

Revolution

IN modern world this form of NTP is considered predominant. It ensures large scale, accelerated reproduction rates, and high effect. Revolutionary scientific and technological progress (STP) is a fundamental transformation in the entire system. A complex of interconnected revolutions in different areas material production is based on the transition to qualitatively new principles. In accordance with the changes occurring in material production, the main features and stages inherent only in such a phenomenon as scientific and technological progress (STP) are formed.

Stages

The changes mentioned above concern not only the efficiency of production itself, but also the factors that determine growth. Revolutionary improvement goes through the following stages:

1. Preparatory (scientific).
2. Modern, including the restructuring of the structural elements of the national economy.
3. Large machine automated production.

Preparatory stage

It can be dated back to the first third of the 20th century. During that period, new theories of machine technology and principles of production formation were being developed. This work preceded the creation of updated equipment and technologies that were subsequently used during the preparation for World War II. During this period, many fundamental ideas about factors changed radically environment. At the same time, there was an active process of subsequent development of technology and equipment in production.

Second stage

It coincided with the beginning of the war. Scientific and technological progress (STP) and innovation were the most active in the United States. This was mainly due to the fact that America did not conduct military operations on its territory, did not have outdated equipment, had convenient mineral resources from the point of view of extraction and processing, as well as a sufficient amount of work force. In the 40s of the 20th century, Russia could not claim a leading position in the field of scientific and technological progress in terms of its level of technical development. Its second stage in the USSR began after the end of the war and the restoration of the destroyed economy. The remaining major Western European countries (Italy, France, England, Germany) entered this stage almost immediately after the United States. The essence of this stage was a complete industrial restructuring. In the production process, the material prerequisites were formed for a further radical revolution in the machine and other leading industries, as well as in the entire national economy.

Automation

It marked the third stage of NTP. Over the past few decades, there has been an active production of many different automatic machines and machine lines, the creation of workshops, sections, and in a number of countries - the construction of entire factories. At the third stage, the prerequisites are formed for the consolidation of automated production, which also affects objects of labor and technology.

Unified Policy

The government of any country, in order to ensure an efficient economy and prevent falling behind other states, must implement a unified scientific and technological policy. It is a set of targeted measures. They provide integrated development technology and science, implementation of the results obtained in economic system. To achieve this task, it is necessary to identify priority areas in which achievements will be used first. This is mainly due to the limited government resources to carry out large-scale research work in all areas of scientific and technical progress and their subsequent implementation in practice. At each stage, therefore, priorities must be determined and conditions for the implementation of developments must be ensured.

Directions

They represent areas of development, the implementation of which will ensure maximum social and economic efficiency in a short time. There are general (state) and private (industry) directions. The former are considered a priority for one or more countries. Industry directions are important for specific sectors of industry and economy. At a certain stage, the following national directions of scientific and technical progress were formulated:

Electrification

This direction of scientific and technical progress is considered the most important. Without electrification, it is impossible to improve other economic areas. It should be said that for its time the choice of directions was quite successful. This had a positive effect on increasing efficiency, development, and accelerating production. Electrification is the process of generating and widely using electrical energy in industry and everyday life. It is considered two-way. On the one hand, production takes place, on the other, consumption takes place in different areas. These aspects are inseparable from each other. Production and consumption coincide in time, which is due to physical features electric current as a form of energy. Electrification acts as a basis for automation and mechanization. It helps to increase production efficiency, labor productivity, improve the quality of goods, reduce their cost, and obtain greater profits.

Mechanization

This area includes a set of measures that provide for the widespread replacement of manual operations with machines. Automatic machines, separate production facilities and lines are being introduced. Mechanization of processes means the direct replacement of manual labor with machine labor. This area is in constant development and improvement. It moves from manual work to partial, small, general mechanization, and then to its highest form.

Automation

It is considered the highest degree of mechanization. This direction of scientific and technical progress allows you to carry out a full cycle of work only under human control without direct participation. Automation is the new kind production. It is the result of scientific and technological development through the transfer of operations to an electronic basis. The need for automation is due to the inability of humans to manage complex processes with the required speed and accuracy. Today, in most industries, the main production is almost completely mechanized. At the same time, auxiliary processes remain at the same level of development and are performed manually. Most of these operations are involved in loading and unloading and transport operations.

Conclusion

Scientific and technological progress should be viewed not as simply the sum of its constituent elements or forms of its manifestation. They exist in close unity, mutually complementing and conditioning each other. STP is a continuous process of the emergence of technical and scientific ideas, developments, discoveries, their implementation, obsolescence of equipment and its replacement new technology. The concept itself includes many elements. STP is not limited only to forms of development. This process involves all progressive changes in both the production and non-production spheres.

1. Scientific and technological progress is the basis for the development and intensification of production

2. Main directions scientific and technological progress

3. Scientific and technological progress in the conditions market economy

Conclusion

1. Scientific and technical progress is the basis of development

and intensification of production.

Scientific and technical progress-- This is a process of continuous development of science, technology, technology, improvement of objects of labor, forms and methods of organizing production” and labor. It also acts as the most important means of solving socio-economic problems, such as improving working conditions, increasing its content, protecting the environment, and ultimately increasing the well-being of the people. Scientific and technological progress is also of great importance for strengthening the country’s defense capability.

In its development, scientific and technological progress manifests itself in two interrelated and interdependent forms - evolutionary and revolutionary.

Evolutionary the form of scientific and technological progress is characterized by a gradual, continuous improvement of traditional technical means and technologies, the accumulation of these improvements. Such a process can last quite a long time and provide, especially at its initial stages, significant economic results.

At a certain stage, technical improvements accumulate. On the one hand, they are no longer effective enough, on the other, they create the necessary basis for radical, fundamental transformations of the productive forces, which ensures the achievement of a qualitatively new social labor, more high performance. A revolutionary situation arises. This form of development of scientific and technological progress is called revolutionary. Under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, qualitative changes are taking place in the material and technical base of production.

Modern scientific and technological revolution based on the achievements of science and technology. It is characterized by the use of new energy sources, the widespread use of electronics, the development and application of fundamentally new technological processes, and advanced materials with predetermined properties. All this, in turn, contributes to the rapid development of industries that determine the technical re-equipment of the national economy. Thus, the reverse influence of the scientific and technological revolution on the acceleration of scientific and technological progress is manifested. This is the relationship and interdependence of scientific and technological progress and the scientific and technological revolution.

Scientific and technological progress (in any form) plays a decisive role in the development and intensification of industrial production. It covers all parts of the process, including fundamental, theoretical research, applied research, design and technological development, the creation of samples of new technology, its development and industrial production, as well as the introduction of new technology into the national economy. The material and technical base of industry is being updated, labor productivity is growing, and production efficiency is increasing. Research shows that over the course of a number of years, an average reduction in production costs of industrial products by 2/3 was achieved by account of scientific and technological progress activities. With the transition of the country's economy to market relations, the situation has changed somewhat. However, this situation is temporary. The trend of the influence of scientific and technological progress on the level of production costs, which exists in Western countries with market economies, will also be realized in our country as the country moves towards a civilized market.

2. Main directions of scientific and technological progress

This includes comprehensive mechanization and automation, chemicalization, and electrification of production.

One of the most important areas of scientific and technological progress in modern stage is comprehensive mechanization and automation of production. This is the widespread introduction of interconnected and complementary systems of machines, apparatus, devices, equipment in all areas of production, operations and types of work. It helps to intensify production, increase labor productivity, reduce the share of manual labor in production, facilitate and improve working conditions, and reduce the labor intensity of products.

Under the term mechanization is understood mainly as the displacement of manual labor and its replacement by machine labor in those links where it still remains (and in the main technological operations, and in auxiliary, auxiliary, transportation, relocation and other labor operations). The prerequisites for mechanization were created during the period of manufacture, and its beginning is associated with industrial revolution, which meant the transition to a factory system of capitalist production based on machine technology.

In the process of development, mechanization went through several stages: from the mechanization of the main technological processes, which are characterized by the greatest labor intensity, to the mechanization of almost all main technological processes and partly auxiliary work. At the same time, a certain disproportion has developed, which has led to the fact that only in mechanical engineering and metal processing more than half of the workers are now employed in auxiliary and auxiliary work.

The next stage of development is complex mechanization, in which manual labor is replaced by machine labor in a comprehensive manner in all operations of the technological process, not only the main ones, but also auxiliary ones. The introduction of complexity sharply increases the efficiency of mechanization, since even with a high level of mechanization of most operations, their high productivity can be practically neutralized by the presence of several non-mechanized auxiliary operations at the enterprise. Therefore, integrated mechanization, to a greater extent than non-integrated mechanization, promotes the intensification of technological processes and the improvement of production. But even with complex mechanization, manual labor remains.

The level of production mechanization is assessed by various

indicators.

Production mechanization coefficient-- a value measured by the ratio of the volume of products produced using machines to the total volume of products.

Work mechanization coefficient-- a value measured by the ratio of the amount of labor (in man-hours or standard hours) performed in a mechanized way to total amount labor costs to produce a given volume of output.

Labor mechanization coefficient-- a value measured by the ratio of the number of workers employed in mechanized work to total number workers at a given site or enterprise. When conducting a more in-depth analysis, it is possible to determine the level of mechanization of individual jobs and various types work both for the entire enterprise as a whole and for a separate structural unit.

IN modern conditions The task is to complete comprehensive mechanization in all sectors of the production and non-production spheres, to take a major step in the automation of production with the transition to workshops and automatic enterprises, to automated control and design systems.

Automation of production means the use of technical means to completely or partially replace human participation in the processes of obtaining, transforming, transmitting and using energy, materials or information. There are partial automation, covering individual operations and processes, and comprehensive, automating the entire cycle of work. In the case when an automated process is implemented without direct human participation, they speak of complete automation

this process.

Historically, automation of industrial production. The first arose in the 50s and was associated with the advent of automatic machines and automatic lines for machining, while the execution of individual homogeneous operations or the production of large batches of identical products was automated. As they developed, some of this equipment acquired a limited ability to be reconfigured to produce similar products.

The second direction (from the beginning of the 60s) covered such industries as the chemical industry, metallurgy, i.e. those where continuous non-mechanical technology is implemented. Here, automated process control systems (ACS 111) began to be created, which at first performed only information processing functions, but as they developed, control functions began to be implemented on them.

The transfer of automation to the basis of modern electronic computer technology contributed to the functional convergence of both directions. Mechanical engineering began to develop machine tools and automatic lines with computer numerical control (CNC), capable of processing a wide range of parts, then industrial robots and flexible production systems controlled by automated process control systems appeared.

Organizational and technical prerequisites for automation | production are:

* the need to improve production and its organization, the need to transition from discrete to continuous technology;

* the need to improve the nature and working conditions of the worker;

* the emergence of technological systems, the control of which is impossible without the use of automation tools due to the high speed of the processes implemented in them or their complexity;

* the need to combine automation with other areas of scientific and technological progress;

* optimization of complex production processes only with the introduction of automation tools.

Automation level characterized by the same indicators as the level of mechanization: production automation coefficient, work automation coefficient and labor automation coefficient. Their calculation is similar, but is carried out using automated work.

Integrated production automation involves the automation of all main and auxiliary operations. In mechanical engineering, the creation of complex automated sections of machine tools and their control using a computer will increase the productivity of machine operators by 13 times and reduce the number of machine tools by seven times.

Among the directions complex automation- introduction of rotary and rotary-conveyor lines, automatic lines for mass products and the creation of automated enterprises.

In the conditions of multi-item complex-automated production, a large amount of work is carried out to prepare production, for which systems such as an automated system are functionally linked to the main production scientific research(ASNI), computer-aided design systems for design and technological work(CAD).

Increasing the efficiency of production automation presupposes:

* improvement of methods for technical and economic analysis of automation options for a specific facility, justified selection of the most effective project and specific automation tools;

* creating conditions for intensive use of automation equipment, improving their maintenance;

* increasing the technical and economic characteristics of manufactured equipment used for production automation, especially computer technology.

Computer Engineering It is increasingly used not only for production automation, but also in a wide variety of areas. Such involvement of computer and microelectronic technology in the activities of various production systems is called computerization of production.

Computerization is the basis for the technical re-equipment of production, a necessary condition for increasing its efficiency. On the basis of computers and microprocessors, technological complexes, machines and equipment, measuring, regulating and Information Systems, design work and scientific research are carried out, information services, training and much more are carried out, which ensures an increase in social and individual labor productivity, creating conditions for the comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual.

For the normal development and functioning of a complex national economic mechanism, constant exchange of information between its links and timely processing of a large volume of data at various levels of management are necessary, which is also impossible without a computer. Therefore, economic development largely depends on the level of computerization.

In the process of their development, computers have gone from bulky machines on vacuum tubes, communication with which was possible only in machine language, to modern computers.

The development of computers occurs in two main directions: the creation of powerful multiprocessor computing systems with a performance of tens and hundreds of millions of operations per second and the creation of cheap and compact microcomputers based on microprocesses. Within the second direction, the production of personal computers is developing, which are becoming a powerful universal tool that significantly increases the productivity of intellectual work of specialists in various fields. Personal computers are distinguished by their work in interactive mode with an individual user; small sizes and autonomy of operation; hardware based on microprocessor technology; versatility, providing orientation to a wide range of tasks solved by one user using hardware and software.

It should be noted that such an important element of computerization of production is the widespread use of microprocessors themselves, each of which is focused on performing one or more special tasks. Integrating such microprocessors into components of industrial equipment makes it possible to solve assigned problems at minimal cost and in an optimal manner. The use of microprocessor technology for information collection, data recording or local control significantly expands functionality industrial equipment.

The development of computerization creates a need for the development and creation of new computer technology. Their characteristic features are: the formation of the element base on ultra-large integrated circuits; ensuring performance up to 10 billion operations per second; the presence of artificial intelligence, which significantly expands the capabilities of computers in processing incoming information; the ability for a person to communicate with a computer in natural language through verbal and graphic exchange of information.

In the perspective of the development of computerization - the creation national and international communication and computing networks, databases, a new generation of satellite space communication systems, which will facilitate access to information resources. A clear example serves the Internet.

Chemicalization of production-- another important area of ​​scientific and technological progress, which provides for the improvement of production as a result of the introduction of chemical technologies, raw materials, materials, products for the purpose of intensification, obtaining new types of products and improving their quality, increasing the efficiency and content of labor, facilitating his conditions.

Among the main directions for the development of chemicalization of production, one can note such as the introduction of new structural and electrical insulating materials, the expansion of consumption of synthetic resins and plastics, the implementation of progressive chemical technological processes, the expansion of production and widespread use of various chemical materials with special properties (varnishes). , corrosion inhibitors, chemical additives for modifying the properties of industrial materials and improving technological processes). Each of these areas is effective on its own, but the greatest effect comes from their comprehensive implementation.

Chemicalization of production provides great opportunities to identify internal reserves for increasing the efficiency of social production. The raw material base of the national economy is significantly expanding as a result of a more complete and comprehensive use of raw materials, as well as as a result of the artificial production of many types of raw materials, materials, and fuels, which play an increasingly important role in the economy and provide a significant increase in production efficiency .

For example, 1 ton of plastics replaces on average 5-6 tons of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, 2-2.5 tons of aluminum and rubber - from 1 to 12 tons of natural fibers. The use of 1 ton of plastics and synthetic resins in mechanical engineering and instrument making makes it possible to reduce the cost of production by 1.3-1.8 million rubles. and save 1.1--1.7 thousand man-hours of labor costs.

The most important advantage of chemicalization of production is the possibility of significant acceleration and intensification of technological processes, the implementation of a continuous flow of the technological process, which in itself is an essential prerequisite for complex mechanization and automation of production, and therefore increasing efficiency. Chemical-technological processes are increasingly being implemented in practice. These include electrochemical and thermochemical processes, application of protective and decorative coatings, chemical drying and washing of materials and much more. Chemicalization is also carried out in traditional technological processes. For example, when hardening steel, introducing polymers (an aqueous solution of polyacrylamide) into the cooling medium makes it possible to ensure an almost complete absence of corrosion of parts.

Indicators of the level of chemicalization serve as: the share of chemical methods in the production technology of this type of product; specific gravity of consumed polymer materials in total cost manufactured finished products, etc.

The most important direction of scientific and technological progress, the basis for all other directions, is electrification. Electrification of industry is a process of widespread introduction of electricity as a power source for production power apparatus in technological processes, means of management and control of production progress.

Based on the electrification of production, comprehensive mechanization and automation of production are carried out, and progressive technology is being introduced. Electrification ensures the replacement of manual labor with machine labor in industry and expands the impact of electricity on objects of labor. The effectiveness of the use of electrical energy in technological processes, technical means of automation of production and control, engineering calculations, information processing, computational work, etc. is especially great.

Electrophysical and electrochemical methods have a number of important advantages over traditional mechanical methods of processing metals and other materials. They make it possible to obtain products of complex geometric shapes, precise in size, with appropriate surface roughness parameters and strengthened in areas of processing. The use of laser technology in technological processes is effective. Lasers are widely used for cutting and welding materials, drilling holes and heat treatment. Laser processing is used not only in industry, but also in many other sectors of the national economy.

Indicators of the level of electrification in industry are:

* production electrification coefficient, defined as the ratio of the amount of electrical energy consumed to the total energy consumed per year;

* the share of electrical energy consumed in technological processes in the total amount of electrical energy consumed;

* electric power of labor - the ratio of the power of all installed electric motors to the number of workers (it can be defined as the ratio of consumed electrical energy to the time actually worked by workers).

The basis for electrification in industry is the further development of the electric power industry and the search for new sources of electrical energy.

For electrical energy generation Russian Federation ranks first in Europe and second in the world. Despite a slight decrease in the volume of electricity production, in 1998, 827.2 billion kWh were generated. The main production of electrical energy is carried out at thermal power plants, then at hydroelectric power plants. The production of electrical energy at nuclear power plants accounts for only 12.8% (1998). Currently, the growth rate of electricity production at nuclear power plants has decreased. The main reasons for this are a decrease in the growth of electricity demand in industrialized countries, a significant reduction in prices for fossil fuels, the creation of more efficient and environmentally acceptable systems using fossil fuels and, finally, accidents, especially in Chernobyl nuclear power plant that negatively influenced public opinion.

At the same time, according to experts’ forecasts, in the next 20 years the problems associated with the further development of energy (due to energy sources using fossil fuels) will sharply worsen, both in terms of ecology and economic indicators. A further significant increase in the price of organic fuel is expected due to the fact that its relatively easily accessible reserves will be largely exhausted. Therefore, as a guide for further development nuclear energy complex The country could benefit from an increase by 2030 in the share of electricity generated by nuclear energy sources to 30% in the country as a whole and to 40-50% in its European part.

In addition to identifying the main directions of scientific and technological progress, a grouping of directions of scientific and technological progress by priority has also been adopted.

Priority directions scientific and technological progress are:

* electronization of the national economy - providing all spheres of production and public life with highly efficient means of computing (both mass - personal computers and super-computers with a speed of more than 10 billion operations per second using the principles of artificial intelligence ), introduction of a new generation of satellite communication systems, etc.;

* comprehensive automation of all sectors of the national economy based on its electronization - the introduction of flexible production systems (consisting of a CNC machine, or the so-called processing center, computers, microprocessor circuits, robotic systems and radically new technology) ; rotary conveyor lines, computer-aided design systems, industrial robots, automation equipment for loading and unloading operations;

* accelerated development of nuclear energy, aimed not only at the construction of new nuclear power plants with fast neutron reactors, but also at the construction of high-temperature nuclear energy technology plants for multi-purpose purposes;

* creation and implementation of new materials with qualitatively new effective properties (corrosion and radiation resistance, heat resistance, wear resistance, superconductivity, etc.);

* development of fundamentally new technologies - membrane, laser (for dimensional and heat treatment; welding, cutting and cutting), plasma, vacuum, detonation, etc.;

*acceleration of the development of biotechnology, which opens up ways to radically increase food and raw materials resources, contributing to the creation of waste-free technological processes.

The distinction between the listed areas is relative, since they are all characterized by a high degree of interchangeability and contingency: the process in one area is based on achievements in others.

Thus, the modern level of automation of production and management is unthinkable without information and computing devices, which are the main part automated systems management; the creation of new materials is impossible without the use of fundamentally new technologies for their production and processing; in turn, one of the conditions ensuring the high quality of new technology is the use of new materials with special properties. The impact of computer technology, new materials and biotechnology is felt not only by individual industries, but by the entire national economy.

3. Scientific and technological progress in a market economy

Transition Russian economy on the rails of market relations in the conditions economic crisis was supposed to give rise to a competitive struggle for the right to use the most modern scientific developments, to involve science in solving the problem of industrial restructuring. However, in practice this did not happen. From 1994 to 1997 the share of enterprises developing and implementing innovative projects decreased from 12.5 to 4-5%. At the same time, the share of fundamentally new mechanical engineering products in the total volume of production today is less than 1%. The number of employees performing research and development decreased from 1990 to 1997. more than 2 times. The number of advanced production technologies created continued to decline. Only for 1997-1998. their already insignificant number decreased from 996 to 736

At the same time, for last years There has been some growth in the number of organizations using advanced production technologies. So, for 1997-1998. their number increased from 1363 to 1585 (Table 1), although this value constitutes a very small percentage of the total number of organizations operating in the country.

Table 1. Number of organizations that used advanced production technologies

Total

Organizations that used technology

implemented during

had patents for inventions

three years

six years old

nine years old

ten years or more

1998

Advanced production technologies -total

Design and engineering

Production, processing and assembly

Automated loading and unloading operations, transportation of materials and parts

Automated surveillance equipment (CONTROL)

Communication and control

Manufacturing Information Systems

Integrated management and control

However, the productivity of research and development has been steadily declining. So, for 1993-1998. the number of patent applications filed in Russia decreased from 32,216 to 21,362, or by 1/3.

Only a transition to civilized market relations can decisively accelerate scientific and technological progress. Indeed, there is currently a crisis situation in the country's economy. The tasks of taking emergency measures aimed at restoring previous production volumes and preventing the destruction of the country’s national economy, curbing uncontrollable inflation, stabilizing money circulation And purchasing power population, normalization of the population supply with basic types of food, medicines, and essential goods. Necessity prompt solution For now, these priority tasks leave aside the problems of accelerating scientific and technological progress. In addition, enterprises and firms spend the income they receive mainly on consumption, often ignoring the acquisition and development of new equipment.

In a civilized market economy, when there is no shortage of goods and prices for these goods are regulated only by the mechanism of supply and demand, the only way to increase profits is to reduce the cost of goods and services. The need to reduce costs encourages enterprises to master and implement new equipment and progressive technology, to plan and implement measures to save raw materials, fuel and energy, requires better use of machinery, equipment, production space, and increased labor productivity.

During the formation of a market economy, scientific and technological progress will be facilitated by the development of healthy competition, the implementation of antimonopoly measures, and changes in forms of ownership (denationalization, privatization). The main thing among this is competition not only in the sphere of production, but also in scientific and technical activities.

Small enterprises should play a certain role in accelerating scientific and technological progress. At the same time, incentives for scientific and technological development will manifest themselves in the sphere of creation, rather than consumption of innovations. Special, so-called venture firms will begin their work, the main task of which will be to support scientists, engineers, innovators and inventors, as well as entrepreneurs who want to create their own scientific company or put their ideas into practice. In this way, an organizational and economic environment will be created that will promote scientific and technological progress.

Conclusion.

¦ Scientific and technological progress is a process of continuous development of science, technology, technology, improvement of objects of labor, forms and methods of organizing production and labor.

¦ At a certain stage, as a result of radical, fundamental transformations of the productive forces, a revolutionary situation arises. This form of scientific and technological development is called a scientific and technological revolution. ,

¦ Scientific and technological progress (in any of its forms, both evolutionary and revolutionary) plays a decisive role in the development and intensification of industrial production.

¦ The main directions of scientific and technological progress are comprehensive mechanization and automation, chemicalization, and electrification of production. They are all interconnected and interdependent.

¦ The economic effect of scientific and technical progress is the result of scientific and technical activity. It manifests itself in the form of an increase in production, a reduction in production costs, as well as a reduction in economic damage, for example, from environmental pollution.

¦ Economic effect is defined as the ratio of effect to costs. In this case, the effect is, as a rule, an increase in profits as a result of a reduction in production costs, and the costs are additional capital investments, ensuring cost reduction according to the best option.

¦ Social and environmental results of the implementation of scientific and technological progress measures are determined by the degree to which social and environmental indicators differ from established standards, as well as by the scale of impact on the environment and social sphere.

¦ During the formation of a market economy, scientific and technological progress will be facilitated by the development of healthy competition, the implementation of antimonopoly measures, and changes in forms of ownership in the direction of denationalization and privatization.

Any state, in order to ensure an effective economy and not lag behind other countries in its development, must pursue a unified state scientific and technological policy.

A unified scientific and technical policy is a system of targeted measures that ensure the comprehensive development of science and technology and the introduction of their results into the economy. This requires a choice of priorities in the development of science and technology and those sectors in which scientific achievements should be realized first. This is also due to the limited resources of the state to conduct large-scale research in all areas of scientific and technical progress and their implementation in practice. Thus, at each stage of its development, the state must determine the main directions of scientific and technical progress and provide conditions for their implementation.

The main directions of scientific and technological progress are such areas of development of science and technology, the implementation of which in practice will ensure maximum economic and social efficiency in the shortest possible time.

There are national (general) and sectoral (private) areas of scientific and technical progress. National - areas of scientific and technical progress that at this stage and in the future are a priority for a country or a group of countries. Industry directions are areas of scientific and technical progress that are the most important and priority for individual sectors of the national economy and industry. For example, the coal industry is characterized by certain areas of scientific and technical progress, while mechanical engineering is characterized by others based on their specifics.

At one time, the following areas of scientific and technical progress were identified as national ones: electrification of the national economy; comprehensive mechanization and automation of production; chemicalization of production. The most important, or decisive, of all these areas is electrification, since without it other areas of scientific and technical progress are unthinkable. It should be noted that for their time these were successfully chosen areas of scientific and technical progress, which played a positive role in accelerating, developing and increasing production efficiency. They are also important at this stage of development of social production, so we will dwell on them in more detail.

Electrification is the process of production and widespread use of electricity in public production and everyday life. This is a two-way process: on the one hand, the production of electricity, on the other, its consumption in various fields, starting from production processes occurring in all sectors of the national economy, and ending with everyday life. These aspects are inseparable from each other, since the production and consumption of electricity coincide in time, which is determined by the physical characteristics of electricity as a form of energy. Therefore, the essence of electrification consists in the organic unity of producing electricity and replacing it with other forms of energy in various spheres of social production that use energy to one degree or another. Since electrification is the unity of production and consumption of electricity, the study economic problems This process should not be limited to any one side, which, unfortunately, is the case to this day.”

The importance of further development of electrification is due to many reasons, but the main ones are:

• * advantage of electricity compared to other types of energy. It consists in the fact that electricity is easily transmitted over long distances, provides greater speed and intensity of production processes, can be divided and concentrated in any quantities, and converted into other types of energy (mechanical, thermal, light, etc.);
• * the level of electrification does not yet meet the needs of the country;
• * the possibilities of electrification in the development of the country's productive forces are far from being exhausted.

In fact, only the first stage of electrification was completed, in which the physical properties of electricity were used to transform into mechanical and light types of energy. This made it possible to electrify mainly power processes that use energy as a motive force. The process of displacement of all other energy carriers by electricity in lighting has ended. The electrification of power processes has radically transformed the propulsion system and, in accordance with it, the tools of labor in the branches of material production, especially industry.

However, at the first stage, electrification did not affect other functional elements of the production process, primarily the technological principles of processing objects of labor. Electrical energy participates in these processes only indirectly, being converted into mechanical energy. Of course, as tools improved, certain aspects and elements of technology developed, but its fundamental principles did not change. The necessary shapes and physical properties of the object of labor are still given by mechanical influences on it (cutting, drilling, grinding, etc.) using various tools. This poses certain obstacles to further increasing labor productivity.

Finally, current technology is also very wasteful in terms of materialized labor, as it causes large waste of processed raw materials. Thus, about 25-31% of ferrous metals consumed by mechanical engineering are thrown into waste in the form of shavings, sawdust, and waste.

Thus, the need for fundamental changes in the technological principles of processing objects of labor is determined by the urgent needs of the development of social production. The process of transforming the subject of labor must take place without the immediate and direct participation of a person in it and be characterized by low operational efficiency.

One of the main directions of fundamental changes in technology is its transition to the use of electricity as a working contractor that directly processes the object of labor. Technology based on the thermal effect on the object of labor already uses the property of electricity to be easily converted into thermal energy. Electrothermal processes are widely developed in ferrous metallurgy (smelting electric steel, ferroalloys), metalworking (heating and melting of metals) and metal welding.

Electrochemical technology, which is widely used to produce a number of non-ferrous, light and rare metals (aluminum, magnesium, sodium, titanium, etc.), as well as a number of organic compounds by electrosynthesis, is based on the property of electricity to serve as a reagent in chemical processes.

The electrification of mechanical technology means that electricity should displace and replace the working tool of a mechanical tool (a cutter in metalworking). Electricity will begin to perform the same function as the tool of a mechanical tool, i.e. actually influence the material being processed (electrophysical technology). Such types of electrophysical metal processing technology as electric spark, electric pulse and electric contact have been developed and are used. Electrophysical methods based on the influence of an electric field and electric charges on the processed raw materials, electrical separation, and electroforming are beginning to be introduced. These processes can be used in the most various industries-- textile, engineering, mining, building materials industry.

Proposed in principle new way cutting materials - using a laser beam. Quantum generators are used in a number of branches of mechanical engineering, displacing mechanical metal-cutting machines. Plasma jet technology has been developed and has begun to be introduced into the production of many chemical products.

Electrification is becoming one of the main areas of fundamental transformation of technology because it has many technological and economic advantages. Electrical processing improves the quality, reliability and durability of already known types of products, allows you to create products with new consumer properties, which expands the scope of production and personal consumption.

The wider use of electricity in technological processes is evidenced by the following data. If in 1928 2% was used for technological purposes, now it is more than 30% of all electricity consumed in industry.

The level of electrification is characterized by the following indicators:

• * general electrification coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of electrical energy to the mass of all types of energy consumed by an industry, sub-industry, association (enterprise);
• * drive electrification coefficient - the ratio of electrical energy to the mass of all types of energy used to drive machines, equipment and various mechanisms;
• * the share of electricity consumed directly in technological processes (electrolysis, electric smelting, electric welding, etc.) in the total volume of electricity consumed for production needs;
• * electric power ratio of labor - the ratio of consumed electricity (minus electricity used for technological purposes) to the number of workers or to the time worked for a certain period (usually a year).

Analysis of these indicators over time allows us to judge the development of such an important area of ​​scientific and technical progress as electrification.

The importance of electrification lies in the fact that it is the basis for mechanization and automation of production, as well as chemicalization of production, helps to increase production efficiency: increasing labor productivity, improving product quality, reducing its cost, increasing production volume and profit at the enterprise. Thus, a direct connection has long been established between productivity and the electrical equipment of labor. Electrification is also of great importance for solving many social problems: heating and lighting of residential buildings, improving working conditions in production, wider use of a wide variety of household appliances, etc.

Another important area of ​​scientific and technical progress is comprehensive mechanization and automation of production.

Mechanization and automation of production processes is a set of measures that provide for the widespread replacement of manual operations with machines and mechanisms, the introduction of automatic machines, individual lines and production facilities.

Mechanization of production processes means replacing manual labor with machines, mechanisms and other equipment.

The mechanization of production is continuously developing and improving, moving from lower to higher forms: from manual labor to partial, small and complex mechanization and further to the highest form of mechanization - automation.

In mechanized production, a significant part of labor operations is performed by machines and mechanisms, and a smaller part is performed manually. This is partial (non-comprehensive) mechanization, in which there may be separate weakly mechanized units.

Integrated mechanization is a way of performing the entire range of work included in a given production cycle using machines and mechanisms.

The highest degree of mechanization is the automation of production processes, which allows the entire cycle of work to be carried out without the direct participation of a person in it, only under his control.

Automation is a new type of production, which is prepared by the cumulative development of science and technology, primarily by transferring production to an electronic basis, through the use of electronics and new advanced technical means. The need to automate production is caused by the inability of human organs to control complex technological processes with the required speed and accuracy. Huge energy powers, high speeds, ultra-high and ultra-low temperature conditions turned out to be subject only to automatic control and management.

Currently, with a high level of mechanization of main production processes (80%), in most industries, auxiliary processes are still insufficiently mechanized (25-40); many works are performed manually. Largest quantity auxiliary workers are used in transport and movement of goods, in loading and unloading operations. If we take into account that the labor productivity of one such worker is almost 20 times lower than that of someone employed in complex mechanized areas, then the urgency of the problem of further mechanization of auxiliary work becomes obvious. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the fact that mechanization of auxiliary work in industry is 3 times cheaper than the main one.

But the main and most important form is production automation. Currently, computers are increasingly entering all areas of science and technology. In the future, these machines will become the basis of industrial automation and will control the automation.

The creation of new automatic technology will mean a broad transition from three-link machines (working machine - transmission - engine) to four-link machine systems. The fourth link is cybernetic devices, with the help of which enormous power is controlled.

The main stages of production automation are: semi-automatic machines, automatic machines, automatic lines, sections and automatic workshops, factories and automatic factories. The first stage, which represents a transitional form from simple machines to automatic ones, is semi-automatic machines. The fundamental feature of machines in this group is that a number of functions previously performed by humans are transferred to the machine, but the worker still retains certain operations that are usually difficult to automate. The highest level is the creation of factories and automatic factories, i.e. fully automated enterprises.

The economic and social significance of mechanization and automation of production lies in the fact that they make it possible to replace manual labor, especially heavy labor, with machines and automatic machines, increase labor productivity and, on this basis, ensure real or conditional release of workers, improve the quality of products, reduce labor intensity and production costs , increase production volume and thereby provide the enterprise with higher financial results, which makes it possible to improve the well-being of workers and their families.

Chemicalization is the process of production and use of chemical products in the national economy and everyday life, the introduction of chemical methods, processes and materials into the national economy.

Chemicalization as a process is developing in two directions: the use of advanced chemical technologies in the production of various products; production and widespread use of chemical materials in the national economy and everyday life.

In general terms, chemicalization allows:

• * sharply intensify technological processes and thereby increase production output per unit of time;
• * reduce the material intensity of public and industrial production. So, 1 ton of plastic will replace 5 tons of metal;
• * reduce the labor intensity of products through the introduction of robotics;
• * significantly expand the range, range and quality of products and thereby better meet the needs of production and the population for consumer goods;
• * accelerate the pace of scientific and technological progress. For example, the creation of spacecraft was hardly possible without the use of lightweight, durable and heat-resistant artificial materials with predetermined properties.

From all this it follows that chemicalization has a very significant and direct effect on production efficiency. Moreover, this influence is diverse.

There is also a negative side to chemicalization - chemical production, as a rule, is hazardous industries, and to neutralize them, additional funds must be spent.

The basis for the chemicalization of public production is the development of the chemical industry in the Russian Federation.

The main indicators of the level of chemicalization are divided into specific and general.

Particular indicators reflect individual aspects of the process of chemicalization of the sphere of material production and everyday life. Among these indicators are the following:

• * the share of synthetic rubber, chemical fibers, synthetic detergents and others in their overall balance;
• * consumption of chemicals (feed preparations, mineral fertilizers, chemical protection products, etc.) per unit of livestock and poultry products, per hectare of usable area;
• * costs of chemicals and building parts, structures made of chemical materials per 1 million construction and installation works of industrial, cultural, household and housing construction;
• * production of plastics and synthetic resins as a percentage of steel production by weight and volume, etc.

General indicators characterize the level of development of chemicalization in the country as a whole. These indicators include:

• * share of chemical industry products in total industrial production;
• * production of plastics and synthetic resins per capita;
• * share of artificial and synthetic materials in the total volume of materials consumed;
• * share of products produced using chemical technologies, etc.

History of scientific and technological progress

Scientific and technological revolution, world economic leaders of technical progress

Section 1. The essence of scientific and technological progress, scientific and technological revolution.

Section 2. World economic leaders.

Scientific and technical progress - this is the interconnected progressive development of science and technology, determined by the needs of material production, growth and complexity public needs.

The essence of scientific and technological progress, scientific and technological revolution

Scientific and technological progress is inextricably linked with the emergence and development of large-scale machine production, which is based on the increasingly widespread use of scientific and technical achievements. It makes it possible to put powerful natural forces and resources at the service of man, to transform production into a technological process of conscious application of data from natural and other sciences.

With the strengthening of the relationship between large-scale machine production and science and technology at the end of the 19th century. XX century Special types of scientific research aimed at translating scientific ideas into technical means and new technology: applied research, development and production research. As a result, science is increasingly turning into a direct productive force, transforming an increasing number of aspects and elements of material production.

Scientific and technological progress has two main forms:

evolutionary and revolutionary, meaning a relatively slow and partial improvement of the traditional scientific and technical foundations of production.

These forms determine each other: the quantitative accumulation of relatively small changes in science and technology ultimately leads to fundamental qualitative transformations in this area, and after the transition to a fundamentally new technique and technology, revolutionary changes gradually outgrow evolutionary ones.

Depending on the prevailing social system, scientific and technological progress has different socio-economic consequences. Under capitalism, the private appropriation of means, production and the results of scientific research leads to the fact that scientific and technological progress develops mainly in the interests of the bourgeoisie and is used to increase the exploitation of the proletariat, for militaristic and misanthropic purposes.

Under socialism, scientific and technological progress is put at the service of the entire society, and its achievements are used to more successfully solve the economic and social problems of communist construction, the formation of material and spiritual prerequisites for the comprehensive development of the individual. During the period of developed socialism, the most important goal economic strategy The CPSU is accelerating scientific and technological progress as a decisive condition for increasing the efficiency of social production and improving product quality.

The technical policy developed by the 25th Congress of the CPSU ensures the coordination of all directions of development of science and technology, the development of fundamental scientific research, as well as the acceleration and wider implementation of their results in the national economy.

Based on the implementation of a unified technical policy in all sectors of the national economy, it is planned to accelerate the technical re-equipment of production, widely introduce progressive equipment and technology that ensures increased labor productivity and product quality, savings material resources, improvement of working conditions, environmental protection and rational use natural resources. The task has been set - to carry out the transition from the creation and implementation of individual machines and technological processes to the development, production and mass use of highly efficient machine systems;

equipment, instruments and technological processes that ensure mechanization and automation of all production processes, and especially auxiliary, transport and warehouse operations, make wider use of reconfigurable technical means that allow you to quickly master production new products.

Along with the improvement of already mastered technological processes, groundwork will be created for fundamentally new equipment and technology.

Scientific and technological revolution is a radical transformation in the system of scientific knowledge and technology, occurring in inextricable connection with the historical process of development of human society.

The Industrial Revolution of the 18th-19th centuries, during which handicraft technology was replaced by large-scale machine production and capitalism was established, was based on scientific revolution XVI-XVII centuries

The modern scientific and technological revolution, leading to the replacement of machine production with automated production, is based on discoveries in science late XIX- first half of the 20th century The latest achievements of science and technology bring with them a revolution in the productive forces of society and create enormous opportunities for production growth. Discoveries in the field of atomic and molecular structure of matter laid the foundation for the creation of new materials;

advances in chemistry have made it possible to create substances with predetermined properties;

the study of electrical phenomena in solids and gases served as the basis for the emergence of electronics;

research into the structure of the atomic nucleus opened the way to the practical use of atomic energy;

Thanks to the development of mathematics, means of automation of production and management were created.

All this indicates the creation of a new system of knowledge about nature, a radical transformation of technology and production technology, and an undermining of the dependence of production development on the limitations imposed by human physiological capabilities and natural conditions.

The opportunities for production growth created by scientific and technological revolution are in blatant contradiction with the production relations of capitalism, which subordinate the scientific and technological revolution to an increase in monopoly profits and the strengthening of monopoly dominance (see Capitalist monopolies). Capitalism cannot set before science and technology social tasks that correspond to their level and nature, and gives them a one-sided, ugly character. The use of technology in capitalist countries leads to such social consequences as increased unemployment, increased intensification of labor, and an increasing concentration of wealth in the hands of financial magnates. The social system that opens up space for the development of scientific and technological revolution in the interests of all workers is socialism.

In the USSR, the implementation of the scientific and technological revolution is inextricably linked with the construction of the material and technical base of communism.

Technical development and the improvement of production is carried out in the direction of completing the comprehensive mechanization of production, automating processes that are technically and economically prepared for this, developing a system of automatic machines and creating the prerequisites for the transition to complex automation. At the same time, the development of tools is inextricably linked with changes in production technology, the use of new energy sources, raw materials and supplies. Scientific and technological revolution has an impact on all aspects of material production.

The revolution in the productive forces determines a qualitatively new level of society's activities in production management, higher requirements for personnel, and the quality of work of each worker. The opportunities opened up by the latest achievements of science and technology are realized in the growth of labor productivity, on the basis of which prosperity is achieved, and then an abundance of consumer goods.

The progress of technology, primarily the use of automatic machines, is associated with a change in the content of labor, the elimination of unskilled and heavy manual labor, an increase in the level of professional training and general culture of workers, and the transfer of agricultural production to an industrial basis.

In the future, by ensuring complete well-being for everyone, society will overcome the still significant differences between city and countryside under socialism, the significant differences between mental and physical labor, and will create conditions for the comprehensive physical and spiritual development of the individual.

Thus, the organic combination of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution with the advantages of the socialist economic system means the development in the direction of communism of all aspects of social life.

The scientific and technological revolution is the main arena of economic competition between socialism and capitalism. At the same time, this is an arena for intense ideological struggle.

Bourgeois scientists approach revealing the essence of scientific and technological revolution primarily from the natural-technical side.

For the purpose of apologetics of capitalism, they consider the changes occurring in science and technology, outside of social relations, in a “social vacuum.”

All social phenomena are reduced to processes occurring in the sphere of “pure” science and technology, they write about the “cybernetic revolution”, which supposedly leads to the “transformation of capitalism”, to its transformation into a “society of general abundance” devoid of antagonistic contradictions.

In reality, the scientific and technological revolution does not change the exploitative essence of capitalism, but further aggravates and deepens the social contradictions of bourgeois society, the gap between the wealth of the small elite and the poverty of the masses. Capitalist countries are now as far from the mythical “abundance for all” and “general prosperity” as they were before the scientific and technological revolution began.

Potential development opportunities and production efficiency are determined, first of all, by scientific and technological progress, its pace and socio-economic results.

The more purposefully and effectively the latest achievements of science and technology, which are the primary source of development of productive forces, are used, the more successfully the priority tasks of society are solved.

Scientific and technological progress (STP) in a literal sense means a continuous interdependent process of development of science and technology, and in a broader sense - a constant process of creating new and improving existing technologies.

STP can also be interpreted as a process of accumulation and practical implementation of new scientific and technical knowledge, an integral cyclical system of “science-technology-production”, covering the following areas:

fundamental theoretical research;

applied research work;

experimental design developments;

mastering technical innovations;

increasing the production of new equipment to the required volume, its use (operation) for a certain time;

technical, economic, environmental and social aging of products, their constant replacement with new, more efficient models.

The scientific and technological revolution (STR) reflects a radical qualitative transformation of conditioned development based on scientific discoveries (inventions) that have a revolutionary impact on the change of tools and objects of labor, production management technologies, the nature of labor activity of people.

Are common priority areas NPT. Scientific and technological progress, always carried out in its interconnected evolutionary and revolutionary forms, is a determining factor in the development of productive forces and the steady increase in production efficiency. It directly influences, first of all, the formation and maintenance high level technical and technological base of production, ensuring a steady increase in the productivity of social labor. Based on the essence, content and patterns of modern development of science and technology, we can identify the general directions of scientific and technical progress characteristic of most sectors of the national economy, and for each of them priorities, at least for the near future.

In the conditions of modern revolutionary transformations of the technical basis of production, the degree of its perfection and level economic potential is generally determined by the progressiveness of the technologies used - methods of obtaining and converting materials, energy, information, and manufacturing products. Technology becomes the final link and form of materialization basic research, a means of direct influence of science on the sphere of production. If earlier it was considered a supporting subsystem of production, now it has acquired independent significance, turning into an avant-garde direction of scientific and technical progress.

Modern technologies have certain development and application trends. The main ones are:

firstly, the transition to few-stage processes by combining in one technological unit several operations that were previously performed separately;

secondly, ensuring in new technological systems little or waste-free production;

thirdly, increasing the level of integrated mechanization of processes based on the use of machine systems and technological lines;

fourthly, the use of microelectronics in new technological processes, which allows, simultaneously with an increase in the level of automation of processes, to achieve greater dynamic flexibility of production.

Technological methods increasingly determine the specific form and function of means and objects of labor, and thereby initiate the emergence of new areas of scientific and technical progress, displace technically and economically obsolete tools from production, and give rise to new types of machines and equipment, automation equipment. Now fundamentally new types of equipment are being developed and manufactured “for new technologies,” and not vice versa, as was the case before.

It has been proven that the technical level and quality of modern machines (equipment) directly depend on the progressive characteristics of the structural and other auxiliary materials used for their production. This implies the enormous role of the creation and widespread use of new materials - one of the most important areas of scientific and technological progress.

In the field of objects of labor, the following trends in scientific and technical progress can be identified:

significant improvement in the quality characteristics of materials of mineral origin, stabilization and even reduction in the specific volumes of their consumption;

intensive transition to the use of light, strong and corrosion-resistant non-ferrous metals (alloys) in larger quantities, made possible due to the emergence of fundamentally new technologies that have significantly reduced the cost of their production;

a noticeable expansion of the range and accelerated increase in production volumes of artificial materials with predetermined properties, including unique ones.

Modern production processes are subject to such requirements as achieving maximum continuity, safety, flexibility and productivity, which can only be realized with an appropriate level of mechanization and automation - an integrated and final direction of scientific and technical progress. Mechanization and automation of production, reflecting different degrees of replacement of manual labor with machine labor, in its development sequentially, parallelly or parallel-sequentially passes from a lower (partial) to a higher (complex) form.

In conditions of intensification of production, the urgent need to repeatedly increase labor productivity and radically improve its social content, and fundamentally improve the quality of manufactured products, automation of production processes is becoming a strategic direction of scientific and technical progress for enterprises in most sectors of the national economy. The priority task is to ensure comprehensive automation, since the introduction of individual automatic machines and units does not provide the desired economic effect due to the remaining significant amount of manual labor. A new and quite promising integrated direction is associated with the creation and implementation of flexible automated production. The accelerated development of such industries (primarily in mechanical engineering and some other industries) is due to the objective need to ensure highly efficient use of expensive automatic equipment and sufficient mobility of production with constant updating of the product range.

World economic leaders

The developed countries world, the country of the “golden billion”. They are seriously preparing to enter the post-industrial world. Thus, the states of Western Europe joined forces within the framework of a pan-European program. Industrial developments are underway in the following areas information technologies. Global mobile telephone communications(Germany, 2000-2007) - ensuring universal teleaccess to any subscribers and information and analytical resources of the global network from a personal handset (such as a cell phone) or a special mobile terminal.

Teleconferencing systems (France, Germany, 2000-2005) an opportunity for subscribers remote from each other to quickly organize a temporary corporate network with audio-video access.

Three-dimensional television (Japan, 2000-2010).

Full use of electronic media in everyday life (France, 2002-2004).

Creation of virtual reality networks (Germany, France, Japan, 2004-2009) - personal access to databases and a system for synthesizing multi-sensory (multimedia) display of an artificial image of the environment or scenarios for the development of hypothetical events.

Contactless personal identification systems (Japan, 2002-2004).

In the USA in 1997-1999. Experts from George Washington University prepared a long-term forecast for the development of national science and technology for the period until 2030 based on repeated surveys of a large number of heads of research institutions.

It was deeply developed in the State Department, the Department of Justice, in large manufacturing companies and in the banking industry.

The program provides prompt global high-speed network access to any national and major global information resources.

Organizational, legal and financial fundamentals its implementation, measures are envisaged for the rapid development of powerful computing and analytical centers.

Since 1996, the implementation of the program began, a multi-million dollar budget was allocated and corporate investment funds. Analysts note the very rapid growth of the information technology industry, exceeding government plans.

The maximum surge in “breakthrough” information technologies is predicted from 2003 to 2005. The period of rapid growth will take 30-40 years.

In the field of computer systems, by 2005 there will be personal computers compatible with cable networks television. This will accelerate the development of interactive (partially programmed) television and will lead to the creation of home, industrial and scientific-educational collections of television recordings.

The development of such local funds and large image databases will be ensured by the creation in 2006 of a new generation of digital memory systems and storage of practically unlimited amounts of information.

At the turn of 2008, the creation and widespread distribution of pocket computers and the growth in the use of computers with parallel information processing are expected. By 2004, the commercial introduction of optical computers is possible, and by 2017, the beginning of serial production of biocomputers built into living organisms.

In the field of telecommunications, by 2006 it is predicted that 80% of communication systems will switch to digital standards, there will be a significant leap in the development of microcellular personal telephony - PC5, which will account for up to 10% of the world market mobile communications. This will ensure the universal possibility of receiving and transmitting information of any format and volume.

In area information services by 2004, teleconferencing systems will be introduced (via voice and video communications using computer devices and fast digital networks for transmitting audio-video information between several subscribers in real time). By 2009, the capabilities of electronic banking payments will significantly expand, and by 2018, the volume of trading operations carried out through information networks.

Fundamentally new approach Lytro employees contributed to the photo shoot. They presented a camera that saves not an image, but light rays.

In traditional cameras, a matrix (film) is used to create a picture, on which the light flux leaves a trace, which is then converted into a flat image. The Lytro camera uses a field light sensor instead of a matrix. It does not save an image, but rather captures the color, intensity and direction vector of light rays.

This approach allows you to select the subject of focus after shooting, and the special image format Lytro LFP (Light Field Picture) allows you to change the focus in the image as much as you like.

Writing

Humanity has been looking for ways to transmit information since time immemorial. Primitive people exchanged information using branches folded in a certain way, arrows, smoke from fires, etc. However, a breakthrough in development occurred with the advent of the first forms of writing around 4 thousand years BC.

Typography

Printing was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century. Thanks to him, the world's first printed book, the Bible, appeared in Germany. Gutenberg's invention turned the Renaissance green.

It was this material, or rather, a group of materials with common physical properties, that made a real revolution in construction. The ancient builders had to go to great lengths to ensure the strength of their buildings. Thus, the Chinese used glutinous rice porridge with the addition of slaked lime to hold together the stone blocks of the Great Wall.

Only in the 19th century did builders learn to prepare cement. In Russia, this happened in 1822 thanks to Yegor Cheliev, who obtained a binding material from a mixture of lime and clay. Two years later, the Englishman D. Aspind received a patent for the invention of cement. It was decided to name the material Portland cement in honor of the city where they mined stone similar to cement in color and strength.

Microscope

The first microscope with two lenses was invented by the Dutch optician Z. Jansen in 1590. However, the first microorganisms were seen by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek using a microscope he made himself. As a merchant, he independently mastered the craft of a grinder and built a microscope with a carefully ground lens that increased the size of microbes 300 times. Legend has it that since van Leeuwenhoek examined a drop of water through a microscope, he began to drink only tea and wine.

Electricity

Until recently, people on the planet slept up to 10 hours a day, but with the advent of electricity, humanity began to spend less and less time in bed. Thomas Alva Edison, who created the first electric light bulb, is considered to be the culprit of the electrical “revolution”. However, 6 years before him, in 1873, our compatriot Alexander Lodygin patented his incandescent lamp - the first scientist who thought of using tungsten filaments in lamps.

The world's first telephone, which was immediately dubbed the miracle of miracles, was created by the famous Boston inventor Bell Alexander Gray. On March 10, 1876, the scientist called his assistant at the receiving station, and he clearly heard on the phone: “Mr. Watson, please come here, I need to talk to you.” Bell rushed to patent his invention, and a few months later the telephone was in almost a thousand homes.

Photography and cinema

The prospect of inventing a device capable of transmitting images haunted several generations of scientists. At the beginning of the 19th century, Joseph Niepce projected the view from his studio window onto a metal plate using a camera obscura. And Louis-Jacques Mand Daguerre improved his invention in 1837.

The tireless inventor Tom Edison made his contribution to the invention of cinema. In 1891, he created the kinetoscope - a device for displaying photographs with the effect of movement. It was the kinetoscope that inspired the Lumiere brothers to create cinema. As you know, the first film show took place in December 1895 in Paris on the Boulevard des Capucines.

The debate about who first invented radio continues. However, most representatives of the scientific world attribute this merit to the Russian inventor Alexander Popov. In 1895, he demonstrated a wireless telegraphy apparatus and became the first person to send a radiogram to the world, the text of which consisted of two words “Heinrich Hertz”. However, the first radio receiver was patented by the enterprising Italian radio engineer Guglielmo Marconi.

A television

Television appeared and developed thanks to the efforts of many inventors. One of the first in this chain is professor of the St. Petersburg Technological University Boris Lvovich Rosing, who in 1911 demonstrated an image on a glass screen of a cathode ray tube. And in 1928, Boris Grabovsky found a way to transmit a moving image over a distance. A year later, in the USA, Vladimir Zvorykin created a kinescope, modifications of which were subsequently used in all televisions.

Internet

The World Wide Web, which has enveloped millions of people around the world, was modestly woven in 1989 by Briton Timothy John Berners-Lee. The creator of the first web server, web browser and website could have become the richest man in the world if he had patented his invention in time. As a result, the World Wide Web went to the world, and its creator received a knighthood, the Order of the British Empire and a Technology Prize of 1 million euros.

Scientific and technological progress (NTP) is a process of interconnected, progressive development of science and technology, determined by the needs of material production, the growth and complication of the needs of society. People began to talk about this process from the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. in connection with the strengthening of the relationship between the development of large-scale machine production and science and technology. This relationship gave rise to contradictions in scientific and technical progress. The contradictions immediately affected both the technical and social aspects of social development. Therefore, in economic science, the contradictions of scientific and technological progress are usually divided into technical and social. Mass production of the same products over many years allows for the creation of expensive automatic machine systems. This is explained by the fact that over the long service life of the equipment, all costs are easily recouped. The accelerated pace of scientific and technological progress requires continuous improvement of the production facilities themselves, forcing either modernization or complete replacement of manufactured products. This is where the contradiction in technology development manifests itself - the contradiction between the service life and the payback period, or the technical contradiction of NTP. The social contradictions of scientific and technical progress are associated with the human factor: on the one hand, technical innovations should facilitate working conditions, and on the other, they provoke monotony and monotony, since they are based on automated processes and conveyor production. The resolution of these contradictions is directly related to the increasing requirements for scientific and technological progress. These requirements are embodied in social order. Social order is a form of expression of the strategic interests of society for the long term in the field of scientific and technological progress.

48. Main directions of scientific and technological progress.

The main directions of scientific and technological progress and the development of science and technology are aimed at solving the most pressing problems facing society, which are to improve living standards, meet growing needs, ensure security and economic growth. Only a policy of increasing the effectiveness of scientific and technical progress, its deeper penetration into the most important areas of human activity and the reasonable use of scientific and technological achievements can solve many problems of modern society.

The main directions of STP - scientific and technological progress- these are areas of development of science and technology, the implementation of which in practice will ensure maximum economic and social efficiency in the shortest possible time.

There are:

national (general),

industry (private) areas of scientific and technological progress.

In economics, it is customary to distinguish between the main directions of scientific and technical progress and the forms of their manifestation.

These include the following areas:

electrification of the national economy;

comprehensive mechanization and automation of production;

chemicalization of production;

introduction of the latest technologies.

49. Economic and social efficiency of scientific and technological progress.

NTP- is a continuous process of introducing new equipment and technology, organizing production and labor based on the achievements of scientific knowledge.

It is characterized by the following symptoms:

development and widespread use of fundamentally new machines and machine systems,

working in automatic mode;

creation and development of qualitatively new production technologies;

discovery and use of new types and sources of energy;

creation and widespread use of new types of materials with predetermined properties;

widespread development of automation of production processes based on the use of machine tools

numerical control, automatic lines, industrial robots,

flexible production systems;

introduction of new forms of labor and production organization.

At the present stage, the following features of scientific and technological progress are observed: There is an increase in the technological orientation of scientific and technological progress, its technological component. Progressive technologies are now the main link of scientific and technological progress, both in terms of the scale of implementation and results.

STP is intensifying: the volume of scientific knowledge is growing, the quality of scientific personnel is improving, the cost efficiency of its implementation is increasing and the effectiveness of STP activities is increasing.

At the present stage, scientific and technical progress is becoming more and more complex and systemic. This is expressed, first of all, in the fact that scientific and technical progress now covers all sectors of the economy, including the service sector, and penetrates all elements of social production: the material and technical base, the process of organizing production, the process of personnel training and the organization of management. In quantitative terms, complexity is also manifested in the mass introduction of scientific and technical achievements.

An important pattern of scientific and technical progress is the strengthening of its resource-saving orientation. As a result of the introduction of scientific and technical achievements, material, technical and labor resources are saved, and this is an important criterion for the effectiveness of scientific and technical progress.

There is a strengthening of the social orientation of STP, which is manifested in the increasing impact of STP on social factors human life: conditions of work, study, life.

There is an increasing focus on the development of science and technology towards preserving the environment - the greening of scientific and technological progress. This is the development and application of low-waste and non-waste technologies, the introduction of effective methods for the integrated use and processing of natural resources, and a more complete involvement of production and consumption waste into economic circulation.

To ensure the effective functioning of the economy, it is necessary to pursue a unified state scientific and technical policy. To do this, priority directions for the development of science and technology should be chosen at each stage of planning.

The main directions of scientific and technical progress are electrification, comprehensive mechanization, production automation and chemicalization of production.

Electrification is the process of widespread introduction of electricity into public production and everyday life. It is the basis for mechanization and automation, as well as chemicalization of production.

Integrated mechanization and automation of production is the process of replacing manual labor with a system of machines, apparatus, and instruments in all areas of production. This process is accompanied by a transition from low to higher forms, that is, from manual labor to partial, small and complex mechanization and further to the highest form of mechanization - automation.

Chemicalization of production- the process of production and use of chemical materials, as well as the introduction of chemical methods and processes into technology.

The priority areas of scientific and technical progress at the present stage are: biotechnology, electronization of the national economy, complex automation, accelerated development of nuclear energy, the creation and introduction of new materials, and the development of fundamentally new technologies.

NTP allows you to solve the following problems: firstly, it is NTP that is the main means of increasing labor productivity, reducing production costs, increasing product output and improving its quality. Secondly, as a result of scientific and technical progress, new efficient machines, materials, and technological processes are created that improve working conditions and reduce the labor intensity of manufacturing products. Thirdly, scientific and technical progress has a strong impact on the organization of production, stimulates the growth of production concentration, and accelerates the development of its specialization and cooperation. Fourthly, the progress of science and technology ensures the solution of socio-economic problems (employment of the population, ease of labor, etc.), serves to more fully satisfy the needs of both society as a whole and each person. Efficiency of scientific and technical progress

The result of the implementation of scientific and technical progress achievements is an increase in the efficiency of the national economy.

The effectiveness of scientific and technical progress is understood as the ratio of the effect and the costs that caused this effect. The effect is understood as a positive result that is obtained as a result of the implementation of scientific and technical progress achievements.

The effect may be:

economic (reducing production costs, increasing profits, increasing labor productivity, and so on);

political (ensuring economic independence, strengthening defense capability);

social (improving working conditions, increasing the material and cultural level of citizens, and so on);

environmental (reducing environmental pollution).

When determining economic efficiency When implementing the achievements of scientific and technical progress, a distinction is made between one-time and current costs. One-time costs are capital investments for the creation of new equipment. Current costs are costs that are incurred during the entire service life of the new equipment.

There are absolute and comparative economic efficiency. Absolute economic efficiency is defined as the ratio of the economic effect to the entire amount of capital investments that caused this effect. For the national economy as a whole, absolute economic efficiency (Ee.ef.n/x) is determined as follows:

Ee.ef.n/x = DD/K

where DD is the annual increase in national income, rub.; K - capital investments that caused this increase, rub.

Comparative economic efficiency.

Calculations of comparative economic efficiency are used when choosing options for capital construction, reconstruction and technical re-equipment of enterprises, technological processes, design, and so on. Comparison of various options for solving economic and technical problems is carried out using a system of basic and additional indicators.