The social structure of modern society economy. Social structure and development of the economy: problem statement. The social structure of society and the economy. “External” factors of social differentiation

The social structure is a fairly constant interconnection of social elements, for example, the social class structure of society. The social structure of society is a relatively constant pattern of social classifications in a particular society, such as the social structure of modern Russian society.

The main elements of the social structure of society: social groups, social strata, social communities and social institutions interconnected by social relations, the carriers of which are people. There is also a classification that distinguishes such components of the social structure of society as: estates, castes, classes.

11. Social connections and relationships.

social connection- a social action that expresses the dependence and compatibility of people or groups This is a set of special dependencies of some social subjects on others, their mutual relations that unite people into the corresponding social communities and testify to their collective existence This is a concept that denotes any socio-cultural duties of individuals or groups of individuals relative to each other.

social relations- these are relatively stable ties between individuals and social groups, due to their unequal position in society and roles in public life

Subjects social relations various social communities and individuals act

1 - social relations of socio-historical communities (between countries, classes, nations, social groups, town and countryside);

2 - social relations between public organizations, institutions and labor collectives;

3 - social relations in the form of interpersonal interaction and communication within labor collectives

There are different types of social relations:

by the scope of power: horizontal relations and vertical relations;

according to the degree of regulation: formal (certified) and informal;

by the way individuals communicate: impersonal or indirect, interpersonal or direct;

for subjects of activity: between organizational, intraorganizational;

according to the level of justice: fair and unfair

The basis of the differences between social relations are motives and needs, the main of which are primary and secondary needs.

As a result of the contradiction of social relations, social conflict becomes one of the forms of social interaction.

12. Social groups: essence and classification.

social group is a set of individuals interacting in a certain way based on the shared expectations of each member of the group in relation to others.

In this definition, one can see two essential conditions necessary for a set to be considered a group: 1) the existence of interactions between its members; 2) the emergence of shared expectations of each member of the group regarding its other members. The social group is characterized by a number of specific features:

stability, duration of existence;

certainty of composition and boundaries;

general system of values and social norms;

awareness of one's belonging to a given social community;

voluntary nature of the association of individuals (for small social groups);

the unification of individuals by external conditions of existence (for large social groups);

the ability to enter as elements in other social communities.

social group- a relatively stable set of people connected by common relationships, activities, its motivation and norms Group classification, as a rule, is based on the subject area of analysis, in which the main feature that determines the stability of a given group formation is singled out. Seven main signs of classification:

based on ethnicity or race;

based on the level of cultural development;

based on the types of structure that exists in groups;

based on the tasks and functions performed by the group in wider communities;

based on the prevailing types of contacts between group members;

based on various types of connections existing in groups;

on other principles.

13. Social institutions: essence, typology, functions.

social institution- a historically established stable form of organization of joint activities and relations of people, performing socially significant functions.

Typology social institutions can be composed on the basis of the idea that each institution satisfies one or another fundamental social need. The five fundamental social needs (in the reproduction of the family; in security and social order; in obtaining a livelihood; in the socialization of the younger generation; in solving spiritual problems) correspond to five basic social institutions: the institution of the family, the political institution (state), the economic institution (production) , education, religion.

The function of consolidation and reproduction of social relations. Each social institution is created in response to the emergence of a certain social need in order to develop certain standards of behavior among its members.

The adaptive function lies in the fact that the functioning of social institutions in society ensures the adaptability, adaptability of society to changing conditions of internal and external environment both natural and social.

The integrative function consists in the fact that the social institutions existing in society, through their actions, norms, prescriptions, ensure interdependence, mutual responsibility, solidarity and cohesion of the individuals and / or all members of this society that make up them.

The communicative function lies in the fact that information (scientific, artistic, political, etc.) produced in one social institution is distributed both within this institution and outside it, in interaction between institutions and organizations operating in society.

The socializing function is manifested in the fact that social institutions play a decisive role in the formation and development of the individual, in the assimilation of social values, norms and roles, in the orientation and realization of her social status.

The regulatory function is embodied in the fact that social institutions in the process of their functioning ensure the regulation of interactions between individuals and social communities through the development of certain norms and standards of behavior, a system of rewards for the most effective actions that comply with the norms, values, expectations of society or the community, and sanctions (punishments). ) for actions that deviate from these values and norms.

2.4. The social structure of society and the economy. “External” factors of social differentiation

A deeper understanding of "social", "social relations" is that the latter are also considered as the relationship of groups that form the social structure and play a certain role in the organization of social production. This role, in turn, is determined by the place of the group in a complex system of property, functioning through real economic mechanisms of ownership, use and disposal of various elements of property.

The social structure is formed not only through the relationship of classes - social groups, whose position in society is that some of them are the owners of the means of production, while others are not. Accordingly, the first in the process of functioning of production have the opportunity to use the labor of others to maintain and increase their own wealth. The social structure of society is a more complex formation. It is also due to the differentiation of the part of the population that does not belong to any classes (for example, an artist, teacher, cashier, etc.), and intra-class division. This is evidenced both by the historical analysis of the social structure of past societies (which has already been discussed) and the social differentiation of modern societies. The diverse nature of the use of the means of production, their disposal, as well as the disposal of people engaged in a particular activity, various opportunities for the appropriation of diverse goods and services, as well as the variety of characteristics that determine the property status - all this determines the nature of the social subject and the social position of the group to which he belongs. The totality of such groups, their connections and interactions form the social structure of society, which cannot be reduced to class relations.

The attitude to the means of production can also be diverse. Even the use of the means of production can be of a different nature and, accordingly, determine the social position of the user in different ways. The modern sociologist T. Zaslavskaya drew attention to the double meaning of the concept of “use of the means of production” under the conditions of state ownership. Firstly, this is the use of the means of production by various professional groups, characterized by the quantity and quality of these means, their technical perfection. The need and ability to use complex and unique technical devices in the labor process increase the social status of certain groups of workers. Secondly, it is the use of the means of production (semi-legal) or part of finished products for personal needs or sale on the side. Modern sociologists also pay attention to social class features and their “operationalization”. Under the conditions of widespread functioning or the predominance of state property (as it was, for example, in Soviet society), the decisive factor determining the position in the social hierarchy was the mechanism for disposing of property: who, how, on the basis of what and to what extent disposes of it. This is the essence of the question of the connection between the managerial hierarchy and real economic power and, accordingly, with social differentiation.

However, the nature of the disposal of property can also be different, which should be taken into account when determining how the disposal affects the management mechanism and its effectiveness. Distinguish, for example, unconditional, sovereign disposal and conditional - the operation of property on behalf of and by proxy of the owner by authorized persons and groups. The hierarchy of conditional managers responsible to the owner and higher managers can be formed by both managers and ordinary workers. Good management, as is commonly believed, requires the presence of sovereign power, in effective control the owner behind conditional managers and in their (managers) stimulation.

The sad experience of the functioning of the so-called public property in the USSR was that there were no procedures for the exercise of sovereign powers by the working people (the people seemed to be the owner!) Sovereign disposal of property did not exist, the property was in fact "nobody's". This gave rise to the “strangeness of the subjectless world” inherent in that society: “each social group experienced an acute shortage of the right to decide what was due to it according to its rank in the management hierarchy” . The absence of a sovereign owner who would control and stimulate conditional administrators led to the fact that the so-called conditional administrators (as a rule, representatives of the state-party apparatus), firstly, quite often used state property for personal enrichment; secondly, they actually did not bear responsibility for errors in management and illiterate management. This also determined the nature of the denationalization and privatization carried out in the post-Soviet period: neither one nor the other led to the expected increase in economic efficiency. The former conditional administrators, i.e., those who illegally disposed of state property as personal property, ultimately only legitimized their economic dominance (this is the essence of the so-called nomenklatura privatization). The social position of the former conditional managers, who become owners, has also changed: they now enter into relations other than with representatives of groups that are not owners.

Next, it is important to dwell on the characteristics of the aspect of sociality, which, as noted, is sometimes interpreted as its distinctive feature: sociality as a connection, as a joint nature of life, as a characteristic of integrity. It is this meaning of the concept of “sociality” that is often pointed out in the literature. Highlighting this meaning and fixing attention on it is not only justified, but also necessary. However, it is wrong to oppose these meanings (differentiation based on different possibilities of appropriation and unity, integrity). Unity, connection, integrity, commonality of various groups are formed under the conditions of the social division of labor. It is in these conditions that there is an objective need for unity and interdependence, which are the basis of any other unity and integrity. This circumstance is also pointed out in classical Marxist and non-Marxist sociological literature. K. Marx and F. Engels believed that the interdependence of individuals between whom labor is divided is precisely the consolidation of social activity. The French sociologist E. Durkheim, who refers the division of labor to the “fundamental foundations of the social system,” considered it as the basis of social solidarity.

Let us also pay attention to the correlative nature of the social status (position)*, defined as a “place” as a whole, as the relation of some groups to others, which makes it necessary to use the comparison operation to characterize social statuses. K. Marx pointed to this: “If capital grows rapidly, wages may rise, but the profit of the capitalist rises incomparably faster. Financial situation worker is improving, but at the expense of his social position. The described situation also testifies to the illegality of the identification of economic and social.

Empirical fixation of the social position of various groups in certain concrete historical conditions (fixation of the social structure of society) is a very difficult task. Its solution presupposes, firstly, the allocation of those material conditions and means of existence and life activity, which, in concrete historical circumstances, are necessary for the reproduction of man as a subject of social life. Secondly, the real possibilities of appropriation of conditions and means available to various groups should be determined. But this place itself and the “possibility of appropriation” do not lie on the surface (especially in the context of a discrepancy between the social and the legal). This "place" must be identified through certain research procedures. Researchers, for example, encountered particular difficulties when trying to characterize the social structure of the former socialist society. At that time, it was rightly noted that the tool available for the analysis of social structure could not be used. As R. Ryvkina figuratively characterized this research situation in the Soviet popular literature of the perestroika period, “the structure goes into the shadows.” Indeed, a deep study of the social structure of the former Soviet Union assumed the identification of various, and most importantly, factors specific to this particular society that determine the place of the group in the system of diverse conditions of existence, conditions and means of production, its results, for example, the availability of the so-called deficit. At the same time, many questions arose: by what criterion to determine the place of a particular group in a hierarchical social structure? What determines the distance between positions? How to evaluate the existing differences in terms of the degree of social equality-inequality?

In the literature (mainly journalistic) of the early perestroika period, there were discussions about how legitimate it is to judge the level of well-being on the basis of the received information. wages. After all, a significant part of the population had either illegal sources of income or semi-legal benefits that condition access to high-quality goods and services. As E. Panfilova, former chairman of the Commission on Privileges of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, put it, “we are talking about a fundamentally different life support system.” Accordingly, an attempt to stratify the population mainly through wage fixing and other officially recognized government payments led to somewhat different results than those calculated on the basis of the availability of diverse goods and services. With the same three-layer division, in one case it turned out that in the country 7.1% belonged to the “upper” layer, 31.3% to the “middle” layer, 61.6% to the “lower” layer, in another case to 2.3% were classified as “rich” (while only 0.7% had legitimate sources of wealth), 11.2% - middle-income, 86.5% - poor.

In world sociological literature, the term “stratification” is widely used to designate social structure. As a rule, it is understood as the structure of inequality in society. Stratification is the division of society into groups located at different levels of a multi-layered hierarchical system of their interaction. However, there were heated debates regarding the conditionality of stratification (which determines falling into one or another layer), and various points of view were expressed. The tradition, which goes back to the views of the German sociologist M. Weber, is to consider stratification as a multidimensional formation, determined by three dimensions: economic (wealth), social (prestige) and political (power). M. Weber interpreted “social dimension” and “social status” accordingly. In contrast to the economic position, the latter was determined by the rank of the group prescribed by the society's value system, i.e., respect, honor, which fell to the lot of certain groups. As we can see, M. Weber invested in the “social” a completely different meaning than the one stipulated. Therefore, when using the term “social stratification”, it is necessary to clarify what is meant and what “dimensions” are used to divide society into layers.

Of course, the stratification (stratification) of society into groups, expressing an unequal position in it, is possible according to various criteria. It is clear, however, that social stratification proper must be distinguished from any other, for stratifications conditioned by different grounds may correspond to one degree or another. Thus, involvement in political power, a place in the political hierarchy can also determine a position in the system of social stratification. This is clearly manifested when one analyzes the appropriation of material goods and services (including the means of production) by the Soviet nomenclature and the modern neo-nomenclature, which is gaining not only political, but also dominant economic positions in the reformed post-Soviet society.

The same can be said about prestige. The latter is intended to subordinate objects, to evaluate them by means of the scale of values accepted in society. The prestige of the group is due to the idea of a “reference” group, to which various approved and desirable qualities are attributed. Respect and authority can, under certain specific historical conditions, be a means of acquiring social advantages and determine a position in the social hierarchy. But they may not influence it or not correspond to it. So, in the pre-perestroika period in the Soviet Union, well-known scientists, doctors, artists, to one degree or another, were distribution system nomenclature. Prestige, as it were, became a factor determining the position in the system of social stratification. However, the lack of authority of state and party officials, their unpopularity in public opinion during the stagnant and especially early perestroika periods did not in the least prevent them from occupying disproportionately high positions in the social hierarchy.

The question arises: are power and prestige factors that determine a social position, a place in the system of social stratification (if, of course, we keep in mind the specially stipulated meaning of the social)? This question can be answered only on the basis of a concrete analysis carried out by sociological means and involving taking into account the action of various social factors in a particular society. But if one does not single out social factors proper and does not specify social stratification, then such an analysis is not required. Returning to the problem of the relationship between prestige and wealth, one can also refer to the dispute about the specifics of the historically established Russian mentality, which is allegedly characterized by disrespect for wealth and admiration for asceticism and poverty. There is, however, evidence that at least V late XIX- early XX century. The highest value for the Russian peasantry was prosperity, which was understood not as hoarding, but as having a strong economy.

This nuance (the difference between a strong economy and wealth in general) is also important in the following respect: in non-Marxist sociological literature, the peculiarity of the Marxian concept of class is seen in one-dimensionality (in contrast, for example, to the multidimensional understanding of the class by M. Weber). At the same time, K. Marx is credited with using only “ economic dimension”, characterized by wealth and income. This characterization of Marx's position is not correct in at least two respects. For K. Marx, class is not only economic, but also social category, which, as noted, is useful to distinguish. But what is also important to take into account is that wealth and income characterize a place in the distribution system, which is not limited to not only the economic, but also the social position of a class, any group located at one or another level of the stratification hierarchy. Wealth and income are rather external, superficial signs of social stratification.

A deeper, essential stratification characteristic, indicating a social position (status), is, as noted, the place of the group in the organization of social production, the function that some groups perform in it in comparison with others. For example, in American society, lawyers and doctors are at one of the highest levels of social stratification**, which indicates the objective significance of their activities for modern social production in general and material production in particular: the treatment of expensive work force and its legal support are necessary conditions for its functioning and development. Accordingly, the assessment of the activities of representatives of these professions, expressed ultimately in their income, indicates their demand. Similarly explained low level income of domestic representatives of science, education, culture, specialists in general, not employed in commercial structures. In conditions economic crisis, virtually complete destruction of production, their activities are unclaimed and, accordingly, low-paid. This, in turn, causes a limited range of opportunities for them to appropriate various goods and services.

An important problem discussed in connection with the study of stratification is the relationship between the so-called vertical and horizontal varieties. The first, consisting in the hierarchization of society, the determination of people's activities “by their position in the system of property/power relations”, is connected in different ways (which is always determined by specific historical circumstances) with the second, due to ethno-demographic, regional and other differences. But ethnic or demographic characteristics, residence in a particular region can become signs of social stratification if they also determine the role in social production, the volume of material goods and services received, that is, if the presence or absence of these characteristics entails belonging to a certain social status. So, P. Sorokin argued that the so-called "national inequality is only a particular form of general social inequality." A greater or lesser social difference may be due to residence in a certain region, the specific conditions of which form, in particular, the social infrastructure of the economy. In the conditions of, for example, the USSR, these differences were especially significant.

Methodological principles for taking into account the vertical and horizontal cut of stratification, the imposition of diverse features on those that characterize the actual social class status, were proposed by scientists T. Zaslavskaya and R. Ryvkina. Singling out in the "sociology of economic life" such substructures of society as ethno-demographic, socio-territorial, professional-official, social-labor and family-economic, these sociologists tried to characterize an integral social-stratification formation, which they called the "economic-sociological structure of society" . In their opinion, social and labor and professional and job aspects are of decisive importance in this structure (relative to the USSR). Whereas one should also take into account belonging to such substructures as socio-territorial, ethno-demographic and family-economic. Summing up the arguments about the economic and sociological structure of society, T. Zaslavskaya and R. Ryvkina point out that the elements of the latter “are groups that differ markedly not only in functions in the social organization of labor, in its division and specialization, but also occupy different positions in at least in a few particular substructures.” It is these groups that are the social subjects of the economic life of society, and also have different needs and interests, different behavior in economic sphere.

The dominant role in the economic life of Soviet society was played by the party-Soviet bureaucracy, which predetermined the social image of the post-Soviet reform. The decisive positions in economic life during the period of transformation and the so-called social reform were also occupied by the bureaucratic apparatus, with the only difference that the convertibility of political capital into economic *** received legal formalization and unprecedented scope during this period. This feature of the post-Soviet reform, according to many researchers, was predicted by L. Trotsky. The Soviet bureaucracy, in his opinion, will seek support in property status, seeking to legitimize its dominant position in the economy. “Privileges are only half the price if they cannot be left to children. But the right of will is inseparable from the right of ownership. It is not enough to be a director of a trust; one must be a shareholder. The victory of the bureaucracy in this decisive area would mean its transformation into a new propertied class.

So, social stratification is the differentiation of people and groups according to their place in the historically specific system of social division of labor in accordance with the possibilities for appropriating the means of production, labor, material goods and services. Various social characteristics can determine this place and its corresponding opportunities: power and prestige, professional affiliation, ethnic, demographic and territorial features. The significance of various characteristics for the differentiation of people and groups on a social basis for social stratification is of a specific nature. This significance, as well as the system of social stratification specific to a particular society, is described and explained by sociological means. Its analysis is one of the most important tasks of the sociological study of society.

* The term “status”, which was introduced into sociology in the mid-30s of the XX century. R. Linton, used in two meanings: as a social position, understood as independent of assessments and values real situation, and as a rank, the prestige of the position, due to the totality of rights and obligations, the dominant value system of society. Here and below social status we will mean a social position that characterizes the place of the subject (individual, group) in the system of activity, and the real opportunities for the appropriation of material goods and services.
** Stratification status was calculated based on income.
*** Widely used at the present time when characterizing transformational processes, an expression borrowed from the modern French sociologist P. Bourdieu, who understands by “capital” different kind power (political, economic, social, cultural, symbolic), which determines the position of the subject in the social space.

To begin with, let us recall what constitutes the "social structure of society." With the advent of the first states, new social unities began to appear - estates, classes, nationalities. The population is made up of social elements of varying size and character. Thus, the social structure of society is an integral set of all communities taken in their interaction.

Population - the most important condition for the life and development of society - is a significant community. Indicators such as the total population, its growth rate, health status directly affect the pace of social development, the crisis, economic prosperity and decline are closely related to the economic life of society: for example, the birth rate will certainly be influenced by material well-being, the degree of women's involvement in social production etc. A vivid proof of this is the decline in the birth rate in countries with transition economy(Slovenia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria) due to the decline in living conditions resulting from serious economic reforms. The inverse proportionality of the dependence is also valid: on the speed or slowdown of the pace economic development will be influenced by factors such as population, age structure and population density.

As for the health of the population, we should also pay special attention here, because its decline leads to a deterioration in labor productivity and a decrease in life expectancy.

Economic life seriously influences the formation of professional social communities. In agrarian societies (Nepal, Ethiopia, India), where the class hierarchy and socio-professional groups associated with subsistence farming are most pronounced. In post-industrial countries (USA, Japan), due to the breakthrough scientific and technological revolution a new middle class is developing - the intelligentsia, managers. At the same time, such changes in the economy lead to a blurring of the boundaries between different social groups.

However, the economic interests of these groups are absolutely heterogeneous and quite often oppose each other. Income inequality poses a particular threat to political and economic stability. The formation of the Russian economy in the 90s contributed to a significant difference in the incomes of the population, because the market system gives preference to certain layers over others. Without adjustment, it will tend to favor the elite and be directed against the majority.

Today, this problem - the coordination of the interests of various participants in the social and economic life of society - remains a priority for solution. So, economic and social sphere should complement and mutually support each other.

You already know that within the framework of society as a complex social system, various communities and groups are formed and operate - clans, tribes, classes, nations, families, professional teams, etc. The social structure of society is an integral set of all communities taken in their interaction. The subject of further consideration will be the relationship and mutual influence of the social structure of society and its economic life.

One of the significant communities is the population, which is the most important condition for the life and development of society. The pace of social development, crisis or flourishing largely depends on such indicators as the total population, its growth rate, and health status. In turn, all these indicators are very closely related to the economic life of society. Thus, the birth rate is primarily affected by the level of material well-being, the provision of housing, and the degree of involvement of women in social production. For example, the birth rate in European countries transition economy (Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, etc.) has fallen sharply over the past 5-10 years, which is associated with the deterioration of living conditions that accompanied economic reforms. in Russia in the 1990s. also, the number of births per 1,000 people of the population decreased significantly.

There is also an inverse relationship when population affects the economy. Accelerating or slowing down the pace of economic development depends on total strength population, population density (in a region with a small population, the division of labor is difficult, subsistence economy lasts longer), population growth rates (low rates make it difficult to reproduce the labor force and reduce production volumes, respectively, too high population growth rates make it necessary to direct significant resources to its simple physical survival).

The health status of the population is also a factor in economic development. Its deterioration leads to a decrease in labor productivity in the economy, a reduction in life expectancy. In addition, one of the reasons for the sharp decline in life expectancy, for example, among men in Russia (from 64 to 58 in the 1990s) was the prevailing social conditions(decrease in incomes of the population, the growth of nervous stress due to socio-economic changes and instability in society).

The influence of the economic life of society on the formation of professional social communities is noticeable. IN traditional societies where the social structure is most stable, socio-professional groups associated with subsistence farming and small-scale production remain. IN developed countries In the West, under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, a new middle class is growing (intelligentsia, managers, highly skilled workers). Wherein structural changes in the economy lead to a reduction in the industrial working class, the disappearance of clear boundaries between it and other social groups.

In the context of socio-economic transformations in Russia, the collapse of former social relations, people and groups are trying to master new niches of social and economic survival. feature recent years development of Russian society is the trend of increasing economic differentiation (differences), expressed in the division of society into groups with different incomes, living standards and consumption. The complication of the social structure was manifested in the formation of new social groups and strata: entrepreneurs, financiers, stock brokers, businessmen, etc.

The economic interests of various social groups are heterogeneous and often oppose each other. For example, in modern Russia the economic interests of workers, entrepreneurs, and the intelligentsia are not the same. All of them are opposed by the interests of mafia groups. The social stratification of society exacerbates the contradictions between the interests of various social groups, including economic ones. In modern society, there is a problem of reconciling these interests.

Income inequality poses a particular threat to political and economic stability in society. Development of Russia in the 1990s led to significant income disparities. market system, left to itself, gives preference to some social strata and, conversely, “punishes” others. If this system is not corrected by a specific social policy, then it tends to degenerate into a system that operates in the interests of a minority of society (the elite) and against the majority.

In modern industrialized countries, welfare states are being created, that is, incomes are redistributed in favor of the poorer and disadvantaged strata, systems are being created social security (pension provision, health insurance, poverty benefits, etc.) - So, in Sweden and the Netherlands, social redistribution accounts for about 30% of national income. Social politics Russian government suggests: social support low-income citizens, regulation of labor relations and promotion of employment of the unemployed population, freedom to choose a profession, sphere and place of work, ensuring the availability of education and assistance in retraining personnel, ensuring freedom of entrepreneurship, etc.

The problem of harmonizing the interests of various participants in the economic life of society remains relevant, so the economic and social spheres should complement and mutually support each other.

One of the significant communities is the population, which is the most important condition for the life and development of society. The pace of social development, crisis or flourishing largely depends on such indicators as the total population, its growth rate, and health status. In turn, all these indicators are very closely related to the economic life of society. So, the birth rate is influenced primarily by the level of material well-being, housing, the degree of involvement of women in social production. For example, the birth rate in European countries with economies in transition (Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, etc.) has fallen sharply over the past 5-10 years, due to the decline in living conditions that accompanied economic reforms. In Russia in the 1990s also, the number of births per 1,000 people of the population has decreased significantly.

There is also an inverse relationship, when the population affects the economy. Acceleration or deceleration of economic development rates depends on the total population, population density (in a region with a small population, the division of labor is difficult, subsistence farming lasts longer), population growth rates (low rates make it difficult to reproduce the labor force and reduce production volumes, too high rates population growth forces significant resources to be devoted to its mere physical survival).

The health status of the population is also a factor in economic development. Its deterioration leads to a decrease in labor productivity in the economy, a reduction in life expectancy. In addition, one of the reasons for the sharp decline in life expectancy, for example, among men in Russia (in the 1990s from 64 to 58 years old) was the prevailing social conditions (reduction in incomes of the population, an increase in nervous stress due to socio-economic changes and instability in society).

The influence of the economic life of society on the formation of professional social communities is noticeable. In traditional societies, where the social structure is most stable, socio-professional groups associated with subsistence farming and small-scale production remain. In the developed countries of the West, under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, a new middle class (intelligentsia, managers, highly skilled workers) is growing. At the same time, structural changes in the economy lead to a reduction in the industrial working class, the disappearance of clear boundaries between it and other social groups.

In the context of socio-economic transformations in Russia, the collapse of former social relations, people and groups are trying to master new niches of social and economic survival. A feature of the recent years of the development of Russian society is the tendency to increase economic differentiation (differences), which is expressed in the division of society into groups with different incomes, living standards and consumption. The complication of the social structure manifested itself in the formation of new social groups and strata: entrepreneurs, financiers, stock brokers, merchants, etc.

The economic interests of various social groups are heterogeneous and often oppose each other. For example, in modern Russia, the economic interests of workers, entrepreneurs, and the intelligentsia are not the same. All of them are opposed by the interests of mafia groups. The social stratification of society exacerbates the contradictions between the interests of various social groups, including economic ones. In modern society, there is a problem of coordinating these interests.

Income inequality poses a particular threat to political and economic stability in society. Development of Russia in the 1990s led to significant income disparities. The market system, left to itself, gives preference to some social strata and, conversely, “punishes.) others. If this system is not corrected by a specific social policy, then it tends to degenerate into a system that operates in the interests of a minority of society (the elite) and against the majority.

In modern industrialized countries, welfare states are being created, that is, incomes are redistributed in favor of the poorer and disadvantaged strata, social security systems are being created (pensions, health insurance, poverty benefits, etc.). Thus, in Sweden and the Netherlands, social redistribution accounts for about 30% of national income. The social policy of the Russian government assumes: social support for low-income citizens, regulation of labor relations and promotion of employment of the unemployed population, freedom to choose a profession, sphere and place of work, ensuring the availability of education and assistance in retraining personnel, ensuring freedom of entrepreneurship, etc.

The problem of harmonizing the interests of various participants in the economic life of society remains relevant, therefore, the economic and social spheres must complement and mutually support each other.

ECONOMY AND POLITICS

Let's see how the main political institution, the state, influences the economic development of society. One of the public functions of the state is the use of available opportunities for economic development. Each country is faced with the problem of choosing the best option for such development, and the role of state policy is essential here. In recent decades, this policy has undergone a major reorientation.

Due to the collapse of the economic, political and social system based on central planning, market forces and free enterprise began to be seen as the basis of the viability of the socio-economic system.

In most countries that have chosen the path of market transformations in the economy, a prerequisite economic growth were privatization and the reduction of the regulatory role of the state. This is accompanied by a reassessment of the functions and policies of the state. Governments tend to interfere less in areas where the market works more efficiently. However, this does not mean the elimination of public administration, but rather a change in its forms and an improvement in its quality.

In a market economy, the main functions of the state are to facilitate and stimulate the action of market forces through government policies. The most general, important condition for the existence of a market economy is the implementation by the state of such political goals as the free development of society, the rule of law, external and internal security (highlighted by Adam Smith).

The free development of society is understood both as a social and as economic category. The more valuable the freedom of an individual in society is recognized, the more significant is perceived economic freedom in the state.

The state is interested in ensuring legal reliability economic activity to enjoy its results. Creation legal order provides, first of all, ensuring by means of laws the right to property and its protection, to freedom entrepreneurial activity, on the system of economic contracts.

Ensuring external and internal security by the state involves the creation of institutions to maintain public order within the country and the presence of a professionally trained army capable of protecting the country from outside attack.

An important task of the state is the protection and maintenance of national economy competition, the fight against the desire of firms for monopoly. For example, for the developing market economy of Russia, this is one of the most pressing problems. (Remember and give examples of antitrust regulation of the economy by the Russian government.)

And finally, in a market economy, the most important function of the state is the development of an optimal national strategy for economic development, the unification of the efforts of state bodies, private companies, public organizations for its implementation. This function cannot be left to automatic market mechanisms. Thus, state policy plays an important role in financing education, healthcare, national culture, etc.

The goals of public policy may be: ensuring full time, fair distribution of incomes, protection of the natural complex, etc. Each government chooses the economic priorities necessary for society in its policy. (What, in your opinion, are the priorities of the policy of the modern Russian state in the economy?)

On economic life societies influence and various political parties and associations.

As you can see, the political institutions of society actively influence the economy. Is the economy interested in supporting, for example, political democracy, the rule of law?

The experience of developed countries shows that a market economy provides a basis for supporting democracy, the rule of law, and civil society. The existence in a competitive environment of a variety of political and economic structures reduces the danger for a person to fall under the authority of an irresponsible employer or organization, giving him the opportunity to choose whom and in what to obey.

Conditions market competition teach people a more responsible attitude to their work, others, decision-making. The freedom of entrepreneurship convinces a person that he can change his life for the better by his own choice of activity and initiative.

Market economy interested in working within rule of law. Thus, it is important for an entrepreneur to start his own business, knowing the “rules of the game” in the market space, that is, according to what known laws he can act, what taxes he must pay. And such important issues for the economy as the establishment of taxes, laws on the protection of environment, regulations governing relations between employers and employees should be openly discussed, taking into account the opinions of various parties.

In turn, the rule of law is based on civil society, which is made up of citizens who independently accept personal decisions pursuing private interests. Structural units of civil society in the economic sphere are private enterprises, cooperatives, joint-stock companies and other production cells created by citizens on their own initiative.

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS

1 Follow the main trends in the economic development of the country, topical issues modern economic and social policy Russian government. This will help you competently defend your economic and social rights and interests.

2 Use knowledge of the interests, needs of various socio-professional groups and the possibilities of their implementation in modern economic conditions. This will give you an opportunity for sound professional self-determination.

3 Determine your position in relation to economic policy states to choose the form of influence on this policy (participation in elections, in the work of parties or associations).

4 Try not just to analyze the positive or negative consequences of economic transformations in the country, but to look for ways of civilized forms of your participation in economic life.