The role of active operations for “anyone” commercial bank very big. Active Operations ensure the profitability and liquidity of the bank, i.e. allow you to achieve two main goals of the activities of commercial banks. Active operations are also of great economic importance; It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct funds released in the process of economic activity to those participants in economic turnover who need capital, ensuring the flow of capital to the most promising economic sectors, promoting the growth of industrial investment, the introduction of innovation, the implementation of restructuring and stable growth of industrial production, and the expansion of housing construction. Bank loans to the population play a major social role. There is a certain relationship between the profitability and riskiness of assets and their liquidity. The riskier an asset is, the more income it can bring to the bank (profitability serves as a payment for risk) and the lower its level of liquidity (a risky asset is more difficult to sell). The riskiest assets are usually both the highest yielding and the least liquid.

We will give a classification of assets according to such qualities as profitability, liquidity, riskiness.

According to the degree of profitability, all assets are divided into two groups:

* income-generating (so-called working), for example, bank loans, a significant part of investments in securities;

* not generating income (so-called non-working); for example, these include: cash; balances of funds in correspondent and reserve accounts with the central bank; investments in bank fixed assets: buildings, equipment.

From a liquidity point of view, three groups of assets are distinguished.

1. Highly liquid assets. They can be immediately used to pay off withdrawn deposits or satisfy loan applications, since they are in cash or can be easily and quickly transferred into it. This includes cash on hand, funds in correspondent and reserve accounts with the central bank, and funds in correspondent accounts with other commercial banks.

2. Liquid assets are assets with an average degree of liquidity. They can be converted into cash with little delay and little risk of loss. These include demand loans and short-term loans, easily marketable bills and other short-term securities, primarily government ones.

3. Low-liquidity (and even illiquid, hopeless) assets are those assets whose probability of being converted into cash is very small or even zero. These are long-term bank loans, its investments in long-term securities, difficult-to-sell buildings, structures, and long-overdue debts.

Up to 80% banking assets falls on credit operations and investments in securities. Revenues from these operations serve as the main sources of bank profits.

Credit operations include lending operations and operations for placing deposits in other banks (active deposit operations). Loan operations are the provision of funds by a bank on the basis loan agreement on the terms of repayment, payment, urgency. These operations bring banks, as a rule, the bulk of interest income.

Bank lending operations can be classified according to following criteria: by economic content and purpose, by category of borrowers, by security, by terms and methods of repayment, by the form of loan issuance.

* joint-stock companies and private enterprises (industrial, commercial, public utilities, agricultural, brokerage);

* credit and financial institutions (and above all banks);

* to the population;

* government and local authorities. Bank loans can be unsecured (blank) or secured. The loan can be secured by a pledge of shares, bonds, bills of exchange and documents of title (warrant - warehouse certificate confirming the presence of goods in a warehouse; railway waybill; bill of lading - certificate of acceptance of cargo for sea transportation, etc.), accounts receivable, mortgages for a car or other type of movable property or real estate. A loan secured by real estate is called a mortgage. Security for a loan can also be a surety or guarantee - an agreement with a unilateral written obligation of the guarantor or guarantor to the bank to repay the loan in the event of non-payment by the borrower or insurance of the risk of non-repayment of the loan by an insurance company.

According to the repayment period, loans are divided into demand loans (on-call), the repayment of which the bank can demand at any time, and urgent ones. The latter are divided into short-term (from one day to one year), medium-term (from a year to three to five years) and long-term - for longer periods. The terms of medium- and long-term loans vary from country to country.

Bank loans can be repaid in two ways. In the first case, the entire principal debt on the loan (excluding interest) must be repaid on one final date in a lump sum. The second repayment method is in installments. The loan amount is written off in installments throughout the term of the loan agreement. Payments to repay the principal amount of the debt are made, as a rule, in equal parts periodically (monthly, quarterly, semi-annually or annually). The second repayment method is usually applied to medium- and long-term loans. Interest on the loan can also be paid in a lump sum upon expiration of the loan term or in equal installments over the life of the loan.

A classic example of an active-passive account is a current account. The loan provided on this account is called a current loan. After concluding an agreement on opening a current account, the current account is closed and all transactions are carried out on the current account. Interest on contract credit accrues periodically on a balance basis, usually quarterly. Contract credit is widely used in Germany, Belgium, Holland, and Italy.

Active bank operations with securities include four main types.

1. Investments in securities purchased for resale in order to obtain exchange rate profit (the difference between the purchase rate and the sale rate). These securities are stored in the bank's portfolio for a short time.

2. Purchasing securities in order to receive income in the form of interest (on bonds, bills, certificates of deposit) and dividends (on shares), as well as participation in the management of an enterprise. Such securities are stored in the bank's portfolio for a long time (usually more than a year) and are called bank investments.

3. Investments in securities purchased through repo transactions. By purchasing such securities, the bank simultaneously undertakes the obligation to resell them after a certain period at a fixed rate. In other words, the bank purchases securities on the terms of their resale.

4. Accounting operations. These are mainly transactions with bills of exchange. Bill discounting is the purchase of a bill of exchange by a bank (with the transfer of a bill of exchange to the bank by endorsement). By purchasing a bill of exchange from the holder of the bill, the bank receives the right to receive money on the bill upon expiration of its term. For the fact that the bank advances the drawer, giving him money immediately, although the maturity date of the bill comes, for example, in a month, the bank charges the discount interest, or discount, from the drawer who presented the bill for accounting. The discount is equal to the difference between the amount indicated on the bill and the amount paid by the bank when discounting the bill. Upon expiration of the bill, the bank presents it to the debtor for redemption (see Fig. 9.3). The meaning of this operation for the bank is to receive discount interest, and for the holder who presented the bill for accounting, to receive money on the bill before its maturity date.

There is a close relationship between passive and active operations of a commercial bank. First of all, the size and structure of active operations that ensure the receipt of income are largely determined by the resources available to banks. In this sense, passive operations that form the bank’s resource base are primary in relation to active ones. When providing loans and purchasing securities, banks are forced to constantly monitor the status of liabilities and monitor the timing of payments on obligations to depositors. If there are not enough resources, the bank has to refuse lucrative offers and sell high-yield securities. At the same time, a significant part of bank deposits arises on the basis of active operations when providing loans in non-cash form. The relationship between passive and active operations is also manifested in the fact that bank profit depends on the bank margin, i.e. the difference between the price of banking resources and the profitability of active operations.

For successful operations, the bank must ensure coordination of passive and active operations: on the one hand, avoid a significant discrepancy between the terms of liabilities and assets, for example, issuing long-term loans at the expense of short-term deposits; and on the other hand, do not immobilize short-term resources for a long period in an amount significantly exceeding the stable balance of funds in bank accounts sufficient for regular payments.

There is also a relationship between certain types of liabilities and assets. Thus, opening a bank account for a large client is accompanied by the emergence of close regular ties between the client and the bank. In order not to lose a client, the bank provides him with significant loans, invests in his securities, provides him with a variety of expense services, and performs commission transactions.

1. Contents and classification of active bank operations

2. Structure and quality of commercial bank assets

3. Liquid assets and factors affecting bank liquidity

4. Assessment and indicators of liquidity of a commercial bank

8.1. Contents and classification of active bank operations

Active operations of banks are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal to generate profit and maintain their liquidity, and, consequently, provide financial stability. Active operations include operations that allocate resources.

Active operations are secondary to passive ones. This is primarily due to the fact that a commercial bank can place only those resources that it has attracted as a result of passive operations, and these are borrowed funds, and the bank must form its active operations in such a way that the timing of the return of money to the bank corresponds to the timing of its return to clients. In this case, the bank will be solvent and financially stable, which will undoubtedly additionally attract clients to it.

There are many classifications of active operations according to one principle or another. The most common classification of active operations by economic content, which consists of:

Loan operations;

Settlement operations;

Cash transactions;

Investment and stock transactions;

Currency transactions;

Warranty operations.

Lending operations are operations to provide funds to the borrower for a certain period and for a certain fee. Settlement operations - operations for crediting and debiting funds from customer accounts, including for payment of their obligations to counterparties.

Cash transactions are operations for receiving and issuing cash.

Investment and stock operations are operations involving the investment by a bank of its funds in securities and shares of non-banking structures for the purpose of joint economic, financial and commercial activities, as well as the placement of funds in the form of time deposits in other credit institutions.

Foreign exchange transactions are purchase and sale transactions foreign currency and others currency values, including precious metals in coins and bars.

Guarantee transactions are transactions when the bank issues a guarantee (guarantee) for payment of the client's debt to a third party upon the occurrence of certain conditions (can be in the form of commissions).

Commercial banks carry out active operations within the limits of available resources, that is, within the limits of balances Money on the correspondent account and at the cash desk.

general characteristics active operations of a commercial bank are shown in the following table:

Cash	Accumulation of funds in a correspondent account; Accumulation of funds in the cash register; Placement of funds in correspondent accounts in other banks; Placement of funds on deposits in other banks.
Loan portfolio	Providing loans to legal entities in national and foreign currencies (including overdue and extended); Providing loans in national currency to individuals (including overdue and extended); Providing interbank loans in national and foreign currencies (including overdue and extended).
Securities for sale	Investments in government and corporate securities for sale.
Investment portfolio	Investments in government and corporate securities for investment; Investments in the authorized capital of enterprises and organizations.
Property and not money	Investments in fixed assets; Investments in inventory; Investments in intangible assets.

Thus, active operations of banks are mainly operations for issuing (placing) various types of loans. The most common type of credit issued by banks is a short-term loan to economic agents, usually to finance the purchase of inventories. This loan can be issued against real collateral or without it, but in any case, to obtain it, it is necessary to have reporting financial documents characterizing financial position borrower, so that the bank can at any time assess the likelihood of timely repayment of the loan.

8.2. Structure and quality of commercial bank assets

The asset structure is understood as the ratio of asset items of the bank’s balance sheet of different quality. The quality of a bank's assets is determined by the appropriate structure of its assets, diversification of active operations, the volume of risky assets, the volume of critical and defective assets and signs of asset variability.

There are different approaches to determining the structure of banking assets. Basically, the assets of commercial banks are divided into four = categories:

Cash and equivalent funds;

Investments in securities;

Loans;

Buildings and constructions.

The first component of bank assets is “Cash and cash equivalents.” Supervisory and regulatory authorities require banks to hold a portion of funds in cash or in the form of demand deposits in accounts with other banks. In addition, cash on hand is needed to change money, return deposits, satisfy loan requests, and cover various operating expenses, including wages personnel, payment for various materials and services. The article “Cash and equivalent funds” includes funds in accounts with the Central Bank and other commercial banks, banknotes and coins, as well as payment documents in the collection process. An important reserve is, of course, cash in bank safes. But the bank's management naturally strives to reduce their value to a minimum determined by security considerations. In addition, in Russia the costs of protecting and insuring cash are very significant; cash does not generate income. Funds in accounts with correspondent banks also practically do not generate income. Therefore, the item “Cash and cash equivalents” is the most liquid for the bank, but the least profitable.

As for the item “Securities”, today the majority of all investments in securities are in government securities. Investments in short-term government securities generally provide lower returns but are a highly liquid asset with zero default risk and little risk of changes in market rates. Long-term securities typically provide high returns over a long period. To increase bank income, they usually invest in bonds. government agencies and, to a limited extent, into high-grade corporate bonds.

The main activity of commercial banks in terms of generating income is providing loans. By placing funds in various types of credit operations, the bank's management considers the primary task to be to obtain high income while simultaneously meeting the credit needs of clients. The degree of liquidity of a particular credit transaction is not of paramount importance.

The quality of assets is determined by their liquidity, the volume of risky assets, the share of critical and inferior assets, and the volume of income-generating assets. To ensure the bank’s daily ability to meet its obligations, the structure of a commercial bank’s assets must meet the qualitative liquidity requirements. For this purpose, all bank assets are divided into groups according to the degree of liquidity depending on the maturity date. Bank assets are divided into highly liquid assets (i.e. assets that provide instant liquidity); liquid assets, long-term liquidity assets.

Instant liquidity assets (highly liquid) include: cash and cash equivalents, funds in accounts with the Central Bank, government debt obligations, funds in correspondent accounts with non-resident banks of OECD member countries in hard currency, investments in domestic foreign currency loan bonds minus funds received in payment for foreign currency shares and funds received in the bank's correspondent account from the sale of securities. These funds are classified as liquid, as they are subject to immediate withdrawal from the bank’s circulation if necessary.

Part liquid assets includes, in addition to the listed highly liquid assets, all loans issued by a credit institution in rubles and foreign currency, with a repayment period within the next 30 days (excluding those extended at least once and newly issued loans to repay previously issued loans), as well as other payments in benefit of the credit institution, subject to transfer within the next 30 days (debtors, as well as overpayment amounts to be returned to the credit institution by reporting date from the required reserve fund).

Long-term liquidity assets include all loans issued by a credit institution in rubles and foreign currency with a remaining maturity of over a year, as well as 50% of guarantees and guarantees issued by a bank with a validity period of over a year, overdue loans minus loans guaranteed by the Government, secured by securities secured by precious metals. By establishing a rational structure of assets, the bank must meet liquidity requirements, and therefore, have a sufficient amount of highly liquid, liquid and long-term liquid funds in relation to liabilities, taking into account their terms, amounts and types, and comply with instant, current and long-term liquidity standards.

The instant liquidity ratio is calculated as the ratio of the amount of the bank's highly liquid assets to the amount of its liabilities on demand accounts. The current liquidity ratio is the ratio of the amount of liquid assets of a credit institution to the amount of its liabilities on demand accounts and for a period of up to 30 days. The long-term liquidity ratio is defined as the ratio of loans issued by a bank with a maturity of over a year to the capital of a credit institution and liabilities over a year.

8.3. Liquid assets and factors affecting bank liquidity

Taking into account the types of liquid assets used by the bank to fulfill its obligations, a distinction is made between liquidity accumulated by the bank (cash, highly liquid securities) and purchased, or more precisely, newly acquired (attracted interbank loans, issue of bank bills, deposit and savings certificates). Compliance with these signs of bank liquidity (timely fulfillment of obligations and without losses) is due to many internal and external factors, determining the quality of the bank’s activities and the state of the external environment.

Internal factors include:

Quality of bank assets;

Quality of funds raised;

Relationship between assets and liabilities by maturity;

Competent management;

Bank image.

The quality of a bank's assets reflects three properties: liquidity, riskiness, and profitability.

Liquidity of assets is the ability of assets to be transformed into cash without loss through their sale or repayment of obligations by the debtor (borrower), while the degree of possible losses is determined by the riskiness of the assets.

The bank's liquidity is also determined by the quality of funds raised, i.e. liquidity of liabilities, stability of deposits and moderate dependence on external borrowings.

The liquidity of liabilities characterizes the speed of their repayment, and therefore the degree of renewability for the bank while maintaining the total volume of raised funds at a certain level. The liquidity of liabilities reflects their term structure. If a bank's attracted resources are dominated by deposits or loans with short maturities, then the liquidity of liabilities is high, and accordingly this can create problems with the liquidity of the bank as a whole. In such a situation, the bank must often replace some borrowed funds with others.

The conjugation of assets and liabilities in amounts and terms has a serious impact on the bank's liquidity. The bank's fulfillment of obligations to the client involves agreeing on the terms for which funds are invested with those for which their depositors provided them. Ignoring this rule in the activities of a bank operating primarily on borrowed resources will inevitably lead to the impossibility of timely and complete fulfillment by the bank of its obligations to creditors.

The internal factors on which the degree of bank liquidity depends also include management, i.e. management system for the bank’s activities in general and liquidity in particular. The quality of bank management is expressed in the presence and content of banking policy; rational organizational structure a bank that allows you to solve strategic and current problems at a high level; in developing an appropriate mechanism for managing the bank’s assets and liabilities; in clearly defining the content of various procedures, including those related to making the most important decisions.

Among the factors determining the liquidity of a bank is its image. Positive image of the bank in market conditions allows it to gain an advantage over other banks in attracting resources and thus quickly eliminate the lack of liquid funds. It is easier for a bank with a good reputation to ensure the stability of its deposit base. He has more possibilities establish contacts with financially stable clients, and therefore have a higher quality of assets.

The bank’s first-class image allows it to develop connections with foreign partners, which also helps strengthen its financial condition and liquidity.

The liquidity position of banks also depends on a number of external factors. These include:

General political and economic situation in the country;

Development of the securities market and interbank market;

System of refinancing of commercial banks by the Bank of Russia;

Efficiency of the supervisory functions of the Bank of Russia.

The general political and economic situation in the country creates the prerequisites for the development of banking operations and the successful functioning of the banking system, ensures the stability of the economic basis of the activities of banks, and strengthens the confidence of domestic and foreign investors in banks. Without these conditions, banks are unable to create a stable deposit base, achieve profitability of operations, improve their tools and management system, and improve the quality of their assets.

The development of the securities market makes it possible to ensure optimal system liquid funds without loss of profitability, since the fastest way to convert bank assets into cash in most foreign countries associated with the functioning of the stock market.

The development of the interbank market contributes to the rapid redistribution of temporarily free monetary resources between banks. To maintain its liquidity, a bank can raise funds from the interbank market for different periods, including for one day. The efficiency of receiving funds from the interbank market depends on the general financial situation, the organization of the interbank market, and the authority of the bank.

Closely related to this factor is another: the Bank of Russia’s system of refinancing of commercial banks. The source of replenishment of liquid assets of a commercial bank is a loan from the Bank of Russia.

The effectiveness of the supervisory functions of the Bank of Russia determines the degree of interaction between the state supervisory authority and commercial banks in terms of liquidity management. The Bank of Russia has the right to establish certain liquidity standards, guiding banks to comply with these standards. The more accurately the established indicators reflect the real state of the bank’s liquidity, the more opportunities the bank itself has and supervisory authority identify liquidity problems in a timely manner and eliminate them.

8.4. Assessment and indicators of liquidity of a commercial bank

In modern Russian practice, two methods of assessing liquidity are used: through ratios and based on cash flow. The basis of the coefficient method is the estimated liquidity indicators established by the Bank of Russia. Currently there are three such indicators:

H2- the bank's instant liquidity standard. Regulates the risk of a bank losing liquidity within one trading day. Limit value 15%;

H3- the bank's current liquidity ratio. Regulates the risk of a bank losing liquidity during the 30 calendar days closest to the date of calculation of the standard. Limit value 50%;

H4- long-term liquidity ratio of the bank. Regulates the risk of a bank losing liquidity as a result of placing funds in long-term assets. Limit value 120%

Along with state regulation of bank liquidity through the establishment of economic standards, liquidity assessment is being developed in Russia based on the calculated liquid position: overall and by different currencies. With this method, liquidity is understood as a flow (with the coefficient method - as a reserve).

The bank's liquid position reflects the ratio of its monetary claims and liabilities for a certain period. If during a period (by a certain date) claims on clients (assets) exceed the bank's liabilities, there will be excess liquidity; if liabilities, meaning an outflow of funds, exceed claims (receipts), there will be a lack of liquidity.

The liquidity situation is assessed as of the current date and all subsequent dates, i.e. for the future. To determine the liquid position, a restructured balance sheet is compiled, in which assets and liabilities are classified by maturity and demand.

There are two main approaches to asset management.

Fund pool method . This method is one of the simplest to use in practice.

The funds that a commercial bank places in the course of its activities come from various sources and have different qualities.

The essence of this method is to combine all available resources into a “common pot” for their further distribution among assets in accordance with the bank’s preferences. As long as the placement of funds corresponds to the achievement of the goals set by the bank, when carrying out specific active operations, it is not taken into account from what sources of funds they are carried out.

Asset Allocation Method (Fund Conversion) . The essence of this method is to compare the bank’s assets and liabilities by terms and amounts. To do this, the sources and main directions for the placement of funds are grouped and compared in such a way that funds from a certain group of liabilities are placed in certain groups of assets, taking into account the profitability of investments and maintaining the liquidity of the bank.

Active banking operations are divided into several groups.

Credit transactions

This group occupies a dominant position in the structure of active operations; it is the group that generates the greatest income.

Credit operations mean the provision of money to individuals and legal entities on the terms of repayment, urgency and payment.

These transactions are regulated credit policy jar. They must correspond in terms and amounts to passive transactions.

Active operations are secondary to passive ones, since banks place not only their own funds, but also those belonging to clients. If most of the liabilities are attracted for a short period, then long-term loans he won't be able to issue it.

Commission and intermediary operations

Leasing operations

Leasing operations - long-term rent, based on lending. An organization that needs to buy equipment turns to the bank with a request to purchase it and then lease it.

The owner of the subject of the transaction is the bank, it is he who makes the payment, and the equipment is used by the lessee, who regularly makes payments to the bank.

The disadvantage of leasing is high fees, which include, in addition to payment for credit resources, depreciation and commissions.

For the bank, the disadvantage is the fact that the leasing agreement can be concluded for a period shorter than the depreciation period of the equipment. If the lessee does not want to buy out the leased asset or renew the contract, the bank will be left with equipment that it does not need. If not found new counterparty, you will have to sell it at a loss for yourself, so as not to spend money on maintenance.

Factoring operations

Factoring - acquisition accounts receivable. If the seller and buyer of the goods stipulate in the contract that shipment will occur now and payment later, the seller can offer the debt to the bank and immediately receive 80-90% of it. The rest will be received after the buyer pays the bank.

The bank, transferring the remaining amount to the seller, will deduct the cost of its services. When agreeing to factoring, it is worth remembering that it is always more expensive than a loan, since the bank takes a lot of risk by providing money to one person and hoping to receive it from another.

Factoring is possible with and without recourse. In the first case, if there is no payment from the buyer, the seller will have to return the money to the bank. In the second, all risks fall on the bank. Naturally, choosing the second option leads to an increase in commission.

Transactions with securities

Investment

Investment transactions mean the acquisition of securities. The level of income and risk received depends on the chosen strategy and the securities portfolio being formed. If the goal is to obtain maximum income, then the investment will be high-risk. If the bank’s priority is stability, even at the cost of reducing profits, then securities of the most reliable issuers will be purchased.

Accounting and loan

Accounting for securities, such as bills of exchange. In this case, the holder of the bill transfers it to the bank by endorsement and receives most of the amount specified in the bill, minus the cost banking services. After the expiration of the period specified on the bill, the bank will present it for payment.

Active banking operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal in order to generate the necessary income and ensure their liquidity. Active operations of a commercial bank mean the use of attracted and own funds to make a profit.

It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct funds released in the process of economic activity to those participants in economic turnover who need capital, ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy. There is a certain relationship between the profitability and riskiness of assets and their liquidity. The riskier an asset is, the more income it can bring to the bank (profitability serves as a payment for risk) and the lower its level of liquidity (a risky asset is more difficult to sell). The riskiest assets are usually both the highest yielding and the least liquid.

According to their objectives, active operations can be divided into operations aimed at maintaining a bank’s liquidity at a certain level, and operations aimed at making a profit.

The main types of active operations of the bank are:

Providing loans of various types to legal entities and individuals for a certain period, for various purposes and on various conditions;

Investments in securities (bonds, shares, etc.) issued by the state or other legal entities, i.e. transactions with securities on one’s own behalf and at one’s own expense;

Factoring operations;

Placement of funds in deposits and other banks.

Currently, there is no consensus among economists regarding the classification of some operations as active or intermediary. For example, some economists classify leasing operations as intermediary ones, since the bank acts as an intermediary during their implementation. Other economists believe that a leasing loan should be classified as an active operation, since it generates income, and in its economic essence it is a type of loan.

The main type of active banking operations is lending, through which commercial banks receive about 80-90% of their total income.

Lending to individuals and legal entities carried out on the basis of Resolution of the Board of the National Bank of the Republic of Belarus dated December 30, 2003 No. 226 “Instructions on the procedure for the provision (placement) of funds by banks in the form of a loan and their return” (with amendments and additions), as well as on the basis of local regulatory and legal acts of commercial banks.

Currently, processes are taking place in the Republic of Belarus associated with an increase in interest rates on bank loans. This is due to an increase credit risks associated with the unstable financial situation in the country. An increase in the refinancing rate forces banks to tie interest rates on loans to this value, since they cannot make the cost of loans cheaper than the cost of funds raised in order to avoid ruin. Therefore, in such a situation, banks offer clients who previously received loans to enter into additional agreements, according to which the amount of interest payments is strictly tied to the refinancing rate

Some banks are willing to accommodate clients who find themselves in special situations. difficult situation, and temporarily fix the interest rate or give a deferment of loan repayment.

Factoring operations can be carried out by commercial banks seeking to universalize their functions, increase the number of clients, provide comprehensive services to existing clients and, ultimately, increase the bank’s image. For such operations, banks may create specialized departments, branches or companies. Factoring is the assignment to a bank of unpaid debt claims (payment documents, bills, etc.) arising between producers and consumers in the process of selling goods and services. The basis of the factoring operation is the purchase by the factor of the supplier's payment documents for the shipped products, work performed and services provided and the transfer by the supplier to the factor of the right to demand payment from the buyer.

Investments in securities. The main types of securities with which commercial banks transact are government securities. As a rule, the purchase and sale of securities is carried out by head branches on the basis of applications submitted by branches or branches. In the practice of some banks, there is such a feature as the concentration of transactions with securities exclusively at the level of the head branch. Transactions with government securities on the primary market are carried out taking into account compliance with the minimum mandatory purchase standard established by the National Bank. Thus, at present, banks have a standard for the purchase of government short-term and long-term bonds in the amount of at least 6% of their equity capital for the quarter. Based on the results of transactions, commercial banks compile a portfolio of securities, which reflects the balances of securities on the relevant balance sheet accounts with their detailed characteristics.

The legislation of the Republic of Belarus gives commercial banks the right to conduct active operations with other types of securities. However, such a practice is rare due to the underdevelopment of the secondary securities market.

Active operations of commercial banks also include the provision of temporarily free resources in the form of interbank loans. This happens if a commercial bank has a positive balance in its correspondent account, i.e. temporarily free resources. Banks provide loans to each other on a contractual basis both in Belarusian rubles and in foreign currency.

In practice, the following main types of interbank credit are used:

Overdraft on correspondent accounts: the corresponding account records the amounts of debit (credit) balances on correspondent accounts of banks at the end of the operating day;

Overnight loans provided to other banks for a period of no more than one business day. This type of interbank credit is used to complete the current day's settlements;

Funds provided (received) to other banks under repo transactions. These transactions involve the purchase of securities from them for a certain period with the condition of their repurchase at a predetermined price.

A pledge of property can serve as collateral for an interbank loan. In some cases, the bank may re-mortgage the property of its clients received during transactions. Also, guarantees and sureties of other banks, enterprises and organizations can be used as collateral if they are secured by a highly liquid pledge of the guarantor or guarantor. Banks can provide each other with loans without appropriate collateral for a period of only up to 3 days with the consent of both parties.

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Active operations of a commercial bank: essence, classification and meaning

Introduction

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of active operations of a commercial bank

1.1 Concept, essence and classification of active operations of a commercial bank

1.2 Legislative regulation of active operations of a commercial bank

Chapter 2. Analysis of active operations of a commercial bank of the Russian Federation

2.1 Analysis of active transactions

2.2 Mathematical modeling of active operations

Chapter 3. Problems and prospects for the development of active operations of Russian commercial banks

Conclusion

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the research topic. Active operations represent the use of own and borrowed resources carried out by the bank to generate profits. In the process of conducting active operations, banks make various investments that generate income in the form of interest, dividends or participation in the profits of joint ventures.

Economic essence active operations of commercial banks consists of the following economically interrelated tasks that banks solve by carrying out active operations: achieving profitability to cover costs, paying dividends on shares, interest on deposits and deposits, and making a profit; ensuring the solvency of the bank, which means the ability of the bank in a timely manner and in full be responsible for your obligations; ensuring liquidity, that is, the ability to quickly (preferably without losses) convert assets into cash. The largest role in the active operations of commercial banks is played by credit operations and securities transactions.

IN modern conditions commercial banks are expanding the range of services and operations designed to generate income. Such operations include trust, guarantee, operations using plastic cards and other. All of the above determined the relevance of the research topic.

The object of the study is the active operations of a commercial bank.

The subject of the study is the problems and prospects for the development of active operations of a commercial bank.

The purpose of the course work was to study the active operations of a commercial bank.

Based on the purpose of the study, the following tasks were set:

Study the theoretical aspects of active operations of a commercial bank;

Conduct an analysis of active operations of a commercial bank of the Russian Federation;

Reveal the problems of developing active operations of Russian commercial banks;

Determine the prospects for the development of active operations of Russian commercial banks.

The theoretical and methodological basis of the study was the legal acts, works of domestic and foreign authors, science articles and methodological manuals.

The course work consists of an introduction, three chapters, including paragraphs, a conclusion, and a list of references.

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of active operations of a commercial bank

1.1 Concept, essenceand classificationactive operations of a commercial bank

The definition of a bank as an institution that accumulates available funds and places them on a repayable basis allows us to distinguish passive and active operations in its activities.

In accordance with the provisions of the Law “On Banks and Banking Activities”, the Federal Law “On Banks and Banking Activities” dated 02/03/1996 No. 17-FZ contains reference to the operations and services of banks. Change 07/28/2004. . In the domestic economic literature, they often do not distinguish between these concepts. At the same time, the definition of banking services as “mass operations” is common. However, it is not clear from this definition how services differ from banking operations. Meanwhile, banking services can only be discussed within the framework of the “client-bank” relationship. It is the presence of a client that allows us to consider the bank’s operations as its services. Thus, a banking service is one or more bank operations that satisfy a specific client need. In addition, the services of commercial banks can be defined as conducting banking operations on behalf of a client in favor of the latter for a fee.

According to Y.I. Lvov, the main active operations are: credit operations, as a result of which the bank’s loan portfolio is formed; investment operations that create the basis for the formation of an investment portfolio; cash and settlement transactions, which are one of the main types of services provided by the bank to its clients; other active operations related to the creation of appropriate infrastructure to ensure the successful execution of all banking operations.

Lavrushin O.I. believes that the most common active activities of banks are Banking. Ed. Lavrushina O.I. - M.: 2015 - 765 p. :

· lending operations, as a rule, bring banks the bulk of their income. On a macroeconomic scale, the significance of these operations is that through them banks transform temporarily inactive cash funds into existing ones, stimulating the processes of production, circulation and consumption;

· investment transactions, in the process of their implementation, the bank acts as an investor, investing resources in securities or acquiring rights to joint business activities;

· deposit operations, the purpose of active deposit operations of banks is to create current and long-term reserves of means of payment in accounts with the Central Bank (correspondent account and reserve account) and other commercial banks;

· other active operations, varied in form, bring significant income to banks abroad. In Russian practice, their range is still limited. Other active transactions include: transactions with foreign currency and precious metals, trust, agency, commodity, etc.

Economic essence of active operations

Active operations represent banking activities for the placement of own and borrowed funds available to commercial banks in order to make a profit.

The economic essence of active operations of commercial banks lies in the following economically interrelated tasks that banks solve while carrying out active operations:

1) achieving profitability to cover costs, pay dividends on shares, interest on deposits and deposits, and make a profit;

2) ensuring the solvency of the bank, which means the bank’s ability to timely and fully meet its obligations;

3) ensuring liquidity, that is, the ability to quickly (preferably without losses) convert assets into cash.

The quality of assets is determined by their properties: profitability, liquidity, degree of risk.

By profitability, assets are divided into:

Assets that do not generate income - these include the cash register, the required reserve fund of the Central Bank, funds in correspondent accounts;

Income-generating assets - credit transactions, securities transactions, income from leasing buildings and structures.

By liquidity, assets are divided into:

1. first-class assets - cash on hand, in correspondent accounts, government securities;

2. liquid assets - short-term loans, interbank loans, factoring operations, transactions with securities; this group of assets has a longer period of transformation into cash;

3. low-liquidity assets - long-term loans, investments in investment securities (with a maturity of more than 6 months), leasing operations;

4. illiquid assets - overdue loans, securities of insolvent or bankrupt organizations.

Riskiness is the potential probability of losses when converting assets into cash. The main banking risks include:

Credit risk - non-repayment of principal and interest on it;

Interest rate risk - losses resulting from the excess of interest on attracted resources over interest on allocated resources;

Portfolio risk - the probability of losses from transactions carried out on the securities market;

Currency risk - losses due to changes in the exchange rate of foreign currency in relation to the national currency.

The economic content of active operations of organizations is manifested in their classification. The classification of assets can be based on the following characteristics:

Type of operation;

Risk level;

The nature of the placement of funds;

Profitability level;

Liquidity level;

Regularity of implementation;

Cash flow across accounts.

Depending on the type of operation, active operations of credit institutions are divided into loan, settlement, cash, investment and stock, commission, guarantee.

Loan operations are operations for issuing (providing) funds to the borrower on the basis of urgency, repayment and payment.

According to Russian legislation The following are equivalent to lending operations:

Providing credits (loans), placing deposits, including interbank credits (deposits, loans), other placement of funds, including placing claims for receipt (return) of debt securities, shares and bills provided under a loan agreement;

Accounting for bills of exchange;

Payment by the credit institution to the beneficiary of amounts under bank guarantees and those collected from the principal;

Monetary claims of a credit institution under financing transactions against the assignment of a monetary claim (factoring);

Claims of the credit institution for rights (claims) acquired under the transaction (assignment of claim);

Requirements of a credit institution for mortgages purchased on the secondary market;

Credit institution requirements for sales (purchase) transactions financial assets with deferred payment (delivery of financial assets);

Requirements of a credit institution to payers under paid letters of credit (in terms of uncovered export and import letters of credit);

REPO transactions (direct and reverse);

Requirements of a credit institution (lessor) to a lessee for financial lease (leasing) transactions.

Settlement transactions are transactions for payment from client accounts of their obligations to counterparties.

Cash transactions are operations for issuing cash.

Investment operations are operations involving a credit institution investing its funds in securities and shares of non-banking structures for the purpose of joint commercial activities.

Stock transactions are transactions with securities (other than investment ones) on organized (exchange) and unorganized markets.

Stock transactions include:

Operations with bills of exchange for purchase, protest of bills of exchange, collection, domiciliation, acceptance, endorsement, issuance of bill of exchange orders, storage of bills of exchange, etc.;

Transactions with securities listed on stock exchanges, - dealer and brokerage;

Transactions with derivative financial instruments.

Commission transactions are operations carried out credit organizations on behalf of, on behalf of and at the expense of clients and generating income in the form of commissions.

These operations include: operations for collection of receivables, transfer operations, trade commissions (purchase of currency, precious stones and metals, and others), trust operations, operations to provide clients with legal and other services.

Guarantee operations are operations where a credit institution issues a guarantee or surety for the payment of a client's debt to a third party upon the occurrence of the conditions specified in the guarantee and which generate commission income.

Depending on the degree of risk, all active operations are divided as follows:

Standard (risk level - 0%);

Non-standard (risk level - from 1 to 20%);

Problematic (risk level - from 21 to 50%);

Doubtful (risk level - from 51 to 99%);

Hopeless (risk level - 100%).

Depending on the nature of the placement of funds, we can distinguish:

Primary - direct placement of funds, for example issuing an interbank loan;

Secondary, related to bank contributions to special funds, for example, to mandatory reserve funds, in insurance funds etc.;

Investment - investment of bank funds in fixed assets, in investment portfolio securities, participation in the activities of other organizations, active operations.

Based on the level of profitability, operations should be divided as follows:

Bringers income - highly profitable, low-income, generating stable or unstable income;

Non-income-generating - interest-free loans, bills, issuance of funds, contributions to required reserves etc.

Based on the level of liquidity, active operations are divided into operations characterized by instantaneous ( cash transactions), current (loan and settlement operations, up to 30 days) and long-term liquidity, as well as illiquid transactions.

Based on the type of currency, active transactions are divided into transactions in rubles and in foreign currency.

By term, urgent short-term (for 1 day, 7 days, 30 days, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months), long-term (over a year, up to 3 years, over 3 years) and perpetual active operations (on demand) are distinguished.

According to the regularity of implementation, active operations can be regular (constant or performed with a certain frequency) and irregular (random, episodic).

Depending on the movement of funds across accounts, active operations are divided into related (balance sheet) and not related to the movement of funds across accounts (off-balance sheet).

1. 2 Legislative regulation of active operations of a commercial bank

The development of active operations of commercial banks based on considerations of liquidity, profitability and acceptable risk distribution should occur in strict compliance with existing legislative acts regulating the relevant aspects of banking activities, which directly or indirectly affect the ability of banks to invest in those or other types of active operations. Such provisions may have the nature of mandatory instructions for all banks regarding the conduct or further development active operations in general or their individual types, permits for certain types of operations, as well as specific legislative measures aimed at stimulating or limiting certain types of operations by exerting a centralized influence on the level of their profitability, risk or liquidity.

Legislative acts usually mean both the provisions of the current banking legislation or regulation (if any), and individual decrees, instructions, instructions of banking control bodies that are binding on all commercial banks. Measures taken by banking control bodies can be aimed both at exerting a direct impact on the conduct of certain operations by banks, and at creating preferential or discriminatory conditions. For example, for the provision of certain types of loans, investments in certain categories of securities, benefits may be provided for their growth or assessment in terms of liquidity. In other cases, these measures increase the cost of certain types of investments for banks. Thus, it is not an exaggeration to say that banking regulation has a significant impact on the orientation of active operations of commercial banks.

The charters of banks provide a broad interpretation of operations, including active ones, that they can carry out within the limits of their legal status. The most common phenomenon was the definition in the charter of the goals of the bank’s activities, highlighting its most important areas. At the same time, the charters contain wording that allows banks to carry out, along with the agreed upon ones, other operations to the extent that they are necessary for the bank to carry out its activities normally. In general, we can say that statutory restrictions on active operations are found, as a rule, only in specialized banking institutions (for example, savings, investment).

Legislative acts can be divided into regulating active operations in general, regulating their specific types or individual specific operations.

Various aspects of active credit operations carried out by commercial banks are regulated by the following regulations Bank of Russia:

1. Instruction of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation No. 110-I dated January 16, 2004, as amended. dated March 20, 2006 “On mandatory standards for banks”;

2. Regulation No. 54-P dated August 31, 1998 “On the procedure for the provision (placement) of funds by credit institutions and their return (repayment)”;

3. Regulation No. 39-P dated July 26, 1998 “On the procedure for calculating interest on transactions related to the attraction and placement of funds by banks”;

4. Regulation No. 89-P dated September 24, 1999 “On the procedure for calculating the amount of market risks by credit institutions”;

5. Regulation No. 254-P dated March 26, 2004, as amended. dated March 20, 2006 “On the procedure for credit institutions to form reserves for possible losses on loans, on loans and similar debts.”

Chapter 2. Analysis of active operations of a commercial bank of the Russian Federation

2.1 Analysis of active transactions

The main purpose of analyzing a bank's active operations is to identify areas for allocating bank resources that generate the greatest income.

Analysis of active operations involves studying and evaluating:

1) the condition and composition of assets;

2) quality of assets;

3) efficient use of assets.

To implement these directions, the analysis of active operations must begin with identifying changes in their structure. Changes in structure can be analyzed using vertical and horizontal analysis.

Vertical analysis shows the structure of the bank's funds when the amounts for individual items or sections are taken as a percentage of the balance sheet currency. The need for vertical analysis is due to the fact that:

1) the transition to relative indicators allows for inter-farm comparisons economic potential and the results of operations of banks that differ in the amount of resources used and other volumetric indicators;

2) relative indicators to a certain extent smooth out the negative impact of inflationary processes, which make it difficult to compare indicators over time.

During horizontal analysis, absolute and relative changes in the values ​​of various balance sheet items for a certain period are determined.

Vertical and horizontal analysis of an asset makes it possible to identify changes in the distribution of aggregate balance sheet items both in dynamics and in the internal structure of active operations, and to determine due to which operations profitability has increased (decreased), and to identify changes in priorities in banking activities. For this purpose, the following table is compiled (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1

Analysis of the structure and dynamics of active operations

	Types of operations	At the beginning reporting period	On the line. reporting period	Deviations
							growth rate, %
	Currency, coins and bank metals, traveler's checks
	Funds for cor. account with the NBU
	Other funds at the NBU
	Funds for cor. accounts in other banks
	Deposits and loans with other banks
	Securities in the bank's portfolio
	Loans and financial leasing
	Capital investments in subsidiaries and associated companies
	Intangible assets
	Money
	Other assets
	Total assets

The table data indicates that the amount of total assets at the end of the reporting period amounted to 15,549 thousand rubles. versus UAH 12,701 thousand. at the beginning of the reporting period, i.e. they increased by 2848 thousand rubles. or by 22.4%. The main share in active operations is occupied by loans and financial leasing provided to clients (57.1% and 58.1%), while there is a tendency for their further growth. IN reporting period they increased by 1,797 thousand rubles. or by 24.8%. In second place in active operations are investments in tangible assets (17.4% and 16.5%).

The role of interbank loans provided to other banks in the bank’s activities is increasing. If their share in total assets at the beginning of the period was 5.1%, then at the end of the reporting period it was 8.1%, in absolute amount they increased by 611 thousand rubles. or by 94.1%.

Other types of assets play a minor role in the bank's activities and range from 0.15 to 5.6%. The above indicates that credit operations play a major role in the activities and are the main source of income for the bank.

When identifying the structure of allocation of banking resources, the grouping method is used. The types of groupings depend on the purposes of the analysis and are carried out according to the following criteria:

a) by type of operation;

b) by terms of placement;

c) by the degree of liquidity;

d) according to the degree of risk;

e) on the impact on the bank’s profitability level.

In terms of types of operations, CB assets can be divided into 5 main categories:

1) cash and equivalent funds;

2) investments;

3) loan operations;

4) structures and equipment;

5) settlement transactions.

Based on the timing of placement of banking resources, the asset accounts of the CB balance sheet are divided into current and urgent.

Current assets are demand assets that are returned at the first request of the creditor. Fixed-term assets are funds that are placed by the bank for a certain period.

Grouping of assets by degree of liquidity is carried out to determine deviations in balance sheet items that affect the stability of the bank.

In order for the bank to function stably, i.e. timely made scheduled and unscheduled payments from deposit accounts, performed operations to transfer funds from account to account, provided loans, etc., he must constantly monitor his liquidity.

Let us analyze the structure of assets by liquidity level for our example (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2

Analysis of asset structure by liquidity level

Asset groups	At the beginning reporting period	On the line. reporting period	Deviations
						growth rate, %
1. Highly liquid assets
2. Liquid assets
Total working assets
3. Low liquid assets
4. Illiquid assets
5. Non-income assets
6. Quasi-assets
Total assets

commercial bank simulation

Highly liquid assets decreased during the period by 201 thousand rubles, their share in total assets fell by 3.4% (8.1-11.5) and by the end of the period amounted to only 8.1%, i.e. their share is less than the recommended value (15%). Share of highly liquid assets in workers at the beginning. period - 15.65%, at the end of the period - 10.91%, which also does not correspond to the recommended value (20%).

Such a decrease is a negative fact: problems with making calculations may arise in the future.

Liquid assets increased by 2,414 thousand rubles, or 30.66%. The share of liquid assets increased by 4.18% (66.17-61.99) and is optimal in relation to total assets (recommended value 61%-70%).

Working assets also increased by UAH 2,213 thousand, or by 23.71%, and their share at the end of the period was 74.27%.

Those. the decrease in the share of highly liquid assets is entirely due to the increase in the share of liquid assets, thus the bank pays more attention to the growth of profitability rather than liquidity.

Low-liquid assets had the highest growth rate (59.1%), which was due to an increase in accounts receivable.

Illiquid assets decreased by 34.2%, indicating a decrease in overdue and doubtful loans.

Let's consider the methodology for analyzing the liquidity of a commercial bank using an aggregated balance sheet.

The aggregate balance method consists of comparing funds for an asset, grouped by the degree of their liquidity and placed in order of decreasing liquidity, with liabilities for a liability, grouped by their maturity and placed in order of decreasing urgency.

The structure of the aggregate balance is presented in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3

Aggregated bank balance

	Balance sheet asset items		Balance sheet liability items
	Cash assets:		On-call obligations:
			demand deposits
	funds in the NBU		correspondent accounts of other banks
			Current obligations:
	funds in correspondent accounts with other banks		time deposits
	Securities:		received interbank loans
	government securities		issued debt obligations
	securities for sale		Other obligations:
	investment securities		accounts payable
	bills discounted by the bank		subordinated debt
			Main capital:
	short-term		authorized capital
	interbank		emission differences
	long-term		reserve fund, general reserves
	overdue		previous years profit, capitalized dividends
	Other assets:		current year result
	investments in associated and subsidiary companies		Additional capital:
	fixed assets and intangible assets		reserves for standard customer debt
	inventory, accounts receivable, other assets		reserves for standard debt of other banks
			results of revaluation of the authorized capital
Balance (A1 + A5 + A10 + A15)	Balance (O1 + O4 + O8 + K1 + K7)

The method of analyzing balance sheet liquidity is based on the principle of portfolio restrictions, which consists in maintaining certain ratios in assets and liabilities by assigning certain groups of assets to certain groups of liabilities. This is a necessary condition for ensuring balanced liquidity of the bank.

2.2 Mathematical modeling of active operations

Active operations are used by commercial banks to generate profit and maintain the required level of liquidity, as well as rational distribution of risks across certain species operations. Active-passive operations- commission transactions of banks performed on behalf of clients.

The main goal of a commercial bank is to make a profit from investing depositors' funds by taking on such a share of risk that will not jeopardize its ability to meet its obligations Iremadze E.O. // Optimization of the consumer structure loan portfolio commercial bank "URALSIB" // Scientific review. 2014. No. 4. pp. 352-354. . The relevance of this work is determined by the fact that against the backdrop of constant changes in the level of inflation, there is a tendency towards a decrease in banking margins and the profitability of banking operations Iremadze E.O. // Ensure efficiency credit process bank by developing mathematical model// Science of the 21st century: questions, hypotheses, answers. 2014. No. 5. P.106-109. .

Effective management financial resources from the point of view of economic and mathematical modeling, this is the optimization of credit deposit policy bank, i.e. modeling optimal management of assets and liabilities in order to maximize profits and ensure bank liquidity.

Let us consider, using the example of Sberbank OJSC, a dynamic optimized model of financial resources.

The portfolio previously included 20 typical assets. When constructing the model, data on the bank’s liabilities from the turnover sheet of accounts were used accounting; data on weighted average interest rates on funds provided by a credit institution; Instruction of the Bank of Russia “On mandatory standards for banks”. Based on the above characteristics, an economic and mathematical model of Sberbank’s asset portfolio was formulated. Objective function:

Restrictions: Mandatory bank standards established by the Bank of Russia; solvency restrictions:

(risk adjusted assets) ?1926393260 (equity)

Instant liquidity restrictions:

Current liquidity restrictions:

Long-term liquidity restrictions:

Bringing the CBR standards to a linear form will significantly speed up the solution of variants of the problem. The results of the implementation of the algorithm for searching for the optimal solution are presented in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4

When analyzing the resulting model, the largest share in the total structure of assets, with established restrictions took investments in the following assets:

individual entrepreneur loans with a repayment period of over 3 years - 14.05%;

acquired debt and equity securities - 17.15%;

loans to individuals with a repayment period of up to 3 years - 14.34%;

loans to individuals with a repayment period of up to a year - 8.29%;

loans to legal entities with a repayment period of up to a year - 8.29%;

loans to individuals with a repayment period of over a year - 8.27%;

loans to individuals with a repayment period of up to 30 days - 2.43%.

This distribution of funds between assets largely determined the return on assets and the structure of liabilities of Sberbank during the modeled period.

This approach makes it possible to maximally protect the bank when making decisions, both in terms of forming a resource base and in terms of optimizing loan investments from liquidity imbalances and the formation of negative cash flow for the bank as a whole.

To identify the main probabilities of approval of a loan transaction, a probit model was built. The variable approval of a credit transaction was selected as the dependent variable. The value taken by the dependent variable can be interpreted as the probability of approval of a loan transaction: 1 if the loan is approved and 0 if the loan is rejected.

Probability of approval loan application described by the probit model

where i are independent identically distributed random variables, the standard normal distribution function is used as the function F(z)

Estimates of the parameters of a probit model are usually obtained using the maximum likelihood method. To evaluate the model, the following assumptions were made. The errors in the equation have a joint normal distribution with a zero vector of mathematical expectations. Error covariance matrix with diagonal elements equal to one and zero covariance between errors. For the purpose of the study, a data set was used on borrowers of the West Ural Bank of Sberbank of Russia. The dataset represents information on 219 Russian borrowers who applied for a mortgage loan.

The set of variables used and their descriptive statistics are presented in Table. 2.5 and 2.6. Next, when estimating the models, categorical variables, namely gender and overdue debt more than 90 days, were recoded into a set of binary variables. 6.8% of borrowers out of 119 observations have overdue debt for more than 90 days. 69.5% of male borrowers applied for a mortgage loan. This set observations represents borrowers aged 25 to 41 years with an average interest rate of 12.37%.

Table 2.6

Variable Definition and Descriptive Statistics

Variables	Description		Std. deviation
	Client age, years
	Number of co-borrowers, people.
	Interest rate on loan, %
	Mortgage loan amount, thousand rubles.
	Size down payment, thousand roubles.
	Estimated cost of purchased housing, thousand rubles.
	Monthly payment, rub.
	Monthly income, rub.
	Loan period, year
	LTV (Amount Ratio loan to appraisal cost)
	Borrower age squared

Table 2.7

Definition and descriptive statistics for categorical variables

The borrower’s income largely determines his ability to repay mortgage obligations in the future, therefore this indicator plays an important role in explaining the likelihood of a loan application being approved.

It is noteworthy that out of 219 individuals, 1.8% have a monthly income from 10,000 to 19,999 rubles, and 98.2% have an income of more than 20 thousand rubles. On average, 41% monthly income is used to pay off the monthly mortgage.

Borrowers with a high LTV are not very motivated to fight to maintain the loan even at the slightest difficulties with servicing because they have not invested a lot of money in their home. Loans with a high LTV ratio are high-risk, and lenders compensate for their risks through high interest rates. The lower this ratio, the more likely it is that, upon foreclosure, the proceeds from the sale of the collateral will cover the lender's expenses on the loan provided.

Thus, this study reveals the main theoretical and methodological aspects of cash flow management in a commercial bank, which serves as an important direction in solving such an applied problem as increasing the efficiency of a commercial bank

Chapter 3. Problems and prospects for the development of active operations of Russian commercial banks

The most important problem in the development of active operations in our country is the participation of banks in investment activities. Now, when they say “investments”, they mean “banks”, and in vain. Currently, the volumes of investments made by banks are very small, mainly short-term investments.

Until now, high inflation and significant risk in long-term investments do not allow banks to be active in this area. A decrease in inflation can create a fundamentally new situation in which investments will become an important area of ​​investment for the bank. However, this will only happen if issues such as risk guarantees and return on investment are resolved.

Banks have very different investment strategies. They depend on the volume of funds (capabilities) of the bank, and on the place that the bank occupies in the market, as well as on a number of other factors. Experts from the Kommersant magazine, for example, divide banks (depending on certain priorities in strategic behavior) into three types:

I - banks controlling powerful cash flows, with a return on assets reaching 13-15% (with an average of 3% or less);

II - banks excluded from the most profitable credit lines, forced to expand the scope of investment interests in the hope of economic recovery;

III - the most common type of banks, focusing on the trade sector and operations in the domestic financial market.

Analysis of the market situation investment loans allows us to come to certain conclusions:

1. Many banks are intensifying their activities in the field of investment lending, seeing this as a guarantee of financial well-being during the revival of the country’s economy.

2. Most banks prefer medium-term investment lending for 1-2 years, but they are starting to finance projects for longer long terms, up to 5-6 years.

3. There is a specialization of banks in certain areas of the economy, or, when penetrating a large number of areas, in specific projects. Lending is mainly to export-oriented areas - oil, forestry, metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, as well as mining industry enterprises, conversion programs and quick-pay back construction.

4. Loans are issued at an average interest rate of 15-25% in foreign currency.

5. The real creditworthiness of commercial banks does not allow them to lend to significant projects.

6. Providing projects accepts various shapes- These are mainly shares of credited enterprises, pledge of fixed assets, guarantees of third legal entities, liquid real estate and deposits placed in the bank.

Despite the very difficult conditions in which Russian commercial banks have to operate, the new credit system develops and adapts more and more to the market. Russian commercial banks are increasingly developing branch network, open branches and representative offices both in various regions of Russia and abroad.

Providing commercial banks with increasing independence and rights should in the future lead to the development of their investment activity.

According to Central Bank experts, there is a trend towards increasing efficiency in the country’s economy long-term investments and a decrease in the profitability of short-term financial transactions.

In practical work, when analyzing the prospects for the development of the credit and investment market, banks proceed from two main current macroeconomic problems: a high inflationary environment and structural adjustment. All other problems, including financial, industrial tax and resource policies of the state, stem from these two. Related problems: high political risk, which results in a lack of internal and external resources for investment, appropriate quality investment projects, as well as personnel issues.

The problem of attracting investment into the real sector of the economy is not limited to ensuring the injection of a certain amount of funds. It is important to create conditions for the interaction of financial, industrial, insurance, venture and other capital in this area and to ensure the formation and development of market mechanisms, their functioning, mutual interest and mutual support.

One of the effective ways to solve the problem of investment is the creation of financial and industrial groups and holdings. Their organization will help increase the interest of all participating structures in long-term investment.

Reasons for the slow integration of banking and industrial capital in Russia: economic instability; lack of effective mechanisms for interaction between banking and industrial capital in new social conditions; political instability; imperfection of legislation; diversified interests of banks and industrial enterprises; lack of risk insurance mechanisms.

In Russia, the role of banks in the implementation of investment projects will increase, because These are practically the only economic structures that accumulate funds. Working with investments, banks are now virtually the only element of the system of institutions necessary for the investment infrastructure.

Conclusion

Summarizing the results of this work, it should be noted that active operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal in order to obtain the necessary income and ensure liquidity.

Although the main goal of a commercial bank is to make a profit, they cannot invest all their funds only in highly profitable operations (such as lending to clients), since when carrying out active operations, such banks must simultaneously ensure the timely return of attracted funds to their owners by maintaining a certain level of liquidity , wisely distribute risks by type of investment, comply with various legislative norms, regulations and instructions of banking control authorities, as well as the requirements of government credit policy.

Thus, asset management presupposes the need to manage the bank’s liquidity, the profitability of its operations and all types of risks that arise when operating in the relevant financial markets.

Profitability and liquidity - two fundamental principles, which reflect the essence of active operations inherent in the bank as a commercial enterprise that uses mainly borrowed funds.

In the structure of assets of Russian commercial banks, two main items occupy a dominant position: loans to the economy and investments in government securities. In addition, a significant part of the assets is represented by interbank loans.

IN Lately commercial banks faced a sharp increase in competition from numerous specialized credit institutions, as well as major industrial corporations that created their own financial companies. Increased competition was facilitated by the easing of direct government restrictions (“deregulation”) in credit sector. Competition stimulates banks to search for new areas of activity and attract additional clients who are offered new types of services. Swap operations have become particularly widespread.

The main type of active operations of a commercial bank was lending. Moreover, the share of short-term loans has increased enormously. This is largely explained high level risk and uncertainty in post-crisis conditions.

In choosing approaches to asset allocation policies, it is not dogmatic guidelines that are important, but a systematic analysis of general economic dynamics. When conducting an analysis, management and experts of banks should take into account such factors as the level business activity in society, the rise and fall of both the demand for loans and the supply of deposits, features monetary policy authorities at a specific stage, the situation in all segments of the financial market.

We can conclude that the development of specific schemes for active operations presupposes flexibility, non-standardization and prompt response to changes in the micro- and macroenvironment of a commercial bank.

Russian commercial banks have not yet reached the level of active operations foreign banks, but in order to increase the level of use of active operations of commercial banks in Russia, you can use the experience of foreign countries applicable to our conditions.

Thus, commercial banks remain the center of the financial system, concentrating deposits from governments, businesses, and millions of individuals. Through active operations, commercial banks provide access to their funds to various types of borrowers: individuals, companies and governments. Bank operations facilitate the movement of goods and services from producers to consumers, and financial activities government. They provide a share of the circulating medium, and themselves act as a means of regulating the amount of money in circulation. Active operations clearly demonstrate that national system commercial banks play an important role in the functioning of the economy.

The ability of the commercial banking system to carry out its activities skillfully and in full accordance with the needs and economic goals of the state largely depends on the effectiveness of its management. The management of any organized activity must be qualified, and the operations of commercial banks are no exception. And if we want to banking system has been steadily growing, adaptable and able to meet the needs of society, commercial banks must conduct their operations with the necessary caution, especially now in the post-crisis environment.

List of used literature

1. Federal Law “On Banks and Banking Activities” dated 02/03/1996 No. 17-FZ. Change 07/28/2004.

2. Instruction of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation No. 110-I dated January 16, 2004, as amended. dated March 20, 2006 “On mandatory standards for banks.”

3. Regulation No. 54-P dated August 31, 1998 “On the procedure for the provision (placement) of funds by credit institutions and their return (repayment).”

4. Regulation No. 39-P dated July 26, 1998 “On the procedure for calculating interest on transactions related to the attraction and placement of funds by banks.”

5. Regulation No. 89-P dated September 24, 1999 “On the procedure for calculating the amount of market risks by credit institutions.”

6. Regulation No. 254-P dated March 26, 2004, as amended. dated March 20, 2006 “On the procedure for credit institutions to form reserves for possible losses on loans, on loan and similar debt.”

7. Banking. Ed. Lavrushina O.I. - M.: 2015 - 765 p.

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