Basic economic systems. Basics of Economics Which economic system is based on private

The economic system represents a special mechanism created to solve the two-sided problems of rarity and release. Since economic resources are limited compared to society's needs for goods and services, certain ways of allocating them between alternative uses are necessary.

Economic system- an ordered set of socio-economic and organizational relations between producers and consumers of goods and services.

The identification of economic systems may be based on various criteria:

Economic condition society at a certain stage of development (Russia during the era of Peter I, fascist Germany);

- stages of social economic development(socio-economic formations in Marxism);

- economic systems characterized by three groups of elements: spirit (main motives economic activity), structure and substance in the German historical school;

Types of organization associated with ways of coordinating the actions of economic entities in ordoliberalism;

Social economic system, based on two characteristics: the form of ownership of economic resources and the method of coordinating economic activities.

In modern scientific and educational literature, classification according to the last of the identified criteria is most widespread. Based on this, traditional, command, market and mixed economies are distinguished.

Traditional economics based on the dominance of traditions and customs in economic activity. Technical, scientific and social development in such countries it is very limited, because it comes into conflict with the economic structure, religious and cultural values. This model of the economy was characteristic of ancient and medieval society, but persists in modern underdeveloped states.

Command economy due to the fact that most enterprises are state owned. They carry out their activities on the basis of state directives; all decisions on the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services in society are made by the state. This includes the USSR, Albania, etc.

Market economy determined by private ownership of resources, the use of a system of markets and prices to coordinate and manage economic activity. In a free market economy, the state does not play any role in the distribution of resources; all decisions are made by market entities independently, at their own peril and risk. Hong Kong was usually included here.

In today's real life there are no examples of a purely command or purely market economy, completely free from the state. Most countries strive to organically and flexibly combine market efficiency with government regulation of the economy. Such an association forms a mixed economy.

Mixed economy represents an economic system where both the state and the private sector play an important role in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of all resources and material goods in the country. At the same time, the regulatory role of the market is complemented by the mechanism of state regulation, and private property coexists with public-state property. The mixed economy arose in the interwar period and to this day represents the most effective form of management. There are five main problems solved by a mixed economy:

q provision of employment;

q full use of production capacity;

q price stabilization;

q parallel growth of wages and labor productivity;

q balance of payments equilibrium.

Their achievement was carried out by states in different periods in different ways, taking into account mutual experience. Conventionally, three models can be distinguished mixed economy.

Neostatist(France, England, Italy, Japan) is characterized by a developed nationalized sector, active countercyclical and structural policies carried out in accordance with indicative plans, and a developed system of transfer payments.

Neoliberal model(Germany, USA) also involves counter-cyclical measures, but the main emphasis is on the state providing conditions for the normal functioning of the market. It is considered as the most effective regulatory system. The government essentially intervenes only to protect competition.

At the core models of concerted action(Sweden, Holland, Austria, Belgium) is based on the principle of consent of representatives of social parties (government, trade unions, employers). Through special taxes on investments, the government prevents the “overheating” of the economy and regulates the labor market. Special laws affect the relationship between wage growth and labor productivity, progressive taxation promotes income equalization. The countries of this model have created a powerful system social security, an active structural policy is being pursued.

Currently in Russia there is an eclectic economic system consisting of elements of an administrative-command system, market economy free competition and a modern market system. In the former Soviet Asian republics, elements are added to this conglomerate traditional system. Therefore, it is quite arbitrary to call the property relations and organizational forms existing in our country an economic system (even an eclectic one). An important feature of the system is missing - its relative stability. After all, in domestic economic life everything is in motion, has transitional character. This transition, apparently, stretches over decades, and from this point of view, a transition economy can also be called a system.

Transition economy- an economy that is in a state of change, transition from one state to another, both within one type of economy and from one type of economy to another, occupies a special place in the development of society.

From transition economy should be distinguished transition period in the development of society, during which there is a change of one type economic relations another.

For the transition economies of the countries of the former “socialist camp” today there is a wide range of prospects: from degradation to a dependent, increasingly lagging economic system developing countries before becoming new industrial states; from economies like the Chinese that retain “socialist” attributes and are based on public ownership to right-wing liberal systems based on private property that begin with the implementation of the principles of “ shock therapy" At the same time, three fundamental trends intersect in the transition economy of each country. The first of them is the gradual dying (both natural and artificial) of “mutant socialism”, which received its name in comparison not with a theoretical ideal, but with a real trend of socialization existing in world practice. The second trend is associated with the genesis of the relations of the post-classical world capitalist economy (modern market economy based on private-corporate property). The third trend is the strengthening of the process of socialization - the increasing role of public (group, national and international) values in economic development and the humanization of public life as a prerequisite for any modern transformations. It is obvious that in such conditions the final choice of the economic system in Russia will ultimately depend on the balance of political forces in the country, the nature of the ongoing reforms, the scale and effectiveness of the ongoing reforms in all spheres of public life, as well as on the adaptation of society to changes.

To summarize, we note that economic systems are multidimensional. They can be formalized: ES = f (A 1, A 2, A 3 ... An). In other words, the economic system (ES) is determined by its properties (A), where there are n such properties. This means that an economic system cannot be defined in terms of a single characteristic.

In it, property relations and organizational forms represent economic system this society. Having understood the essence of the system, one can understand many of the laws of the economic life of society.

Elements of the economic system

Main elements economic system are:

Socio-economic relations based on the forms of ownership of economic resources and results of economic activity that have developed in each economic system;
Organizational forms of economic activity;
Economic mechanism, i.e. a way to regulate economic activity at the macroeconomic level;
Specific economic ties between business entities.

In the last one and a half to two centuries, various types of economic systems: two market systems in which the market economy dominates - the market economy of free competition (pure capitalism) and the modern market economy (modern capitalism) and two non-market systems - traditional and administrative-command. Within the framework of a particular economic system, there are diverse models of economic development of individual countries and regions. Let's consider character traits main types of economic systems.

Market economy with free competition (pure capitalism). Although this system developed in the 18th century. and ceased to exist in late XIX- in the first decades of the 20th century (in different countries), however, many of its elements entered the modern market system.

Distinctive features of a market economy with free competition were:

Private ownership of investment resources;
Market mechanism for regulating macroeconomic activity based on free competition;
The presence of many independently operating buyers and sellers of each product and commodity.

One of the main prerequisites for the emergence of pure capitalism is the personal freedom of all participants in economic activity - not only the capitalist entrepreneur, but also the hired worker.

Freedom became the decisive condition for economic progress entrepreneurial activity those who had capital. A new level of development of the human factor, the main productive force of society, has been achieved. The hired worker and the capitalist-entrepreneur acted as legally equal agents of market relations. Concept "free employee" presupposes the right to freely choose the buyer of labor power, the place of its sale, i.e. freedom of movement within the labor market. Like any commodity owner who sold his goods and received money for it, the hired worker had the freedom to choose items and ways to satisfy needs. The flip side of the freedom to choose the direction of development was personal responsibility for maintaining the workforce in good condition, for the correctness of the decision made, for compliance with the terms of the employment agreement.

Fundamental tasks of economic development in the economic system under consideration are resolved indirectly, through prices and the market. Price fluctuations, their higher or lower levels serve as an indicator of social needs. Focusing on market conditions, the level and dynamics of prices, the commodity producer independently solves the problem of allocating all types of resources, producing those goods that are in demand on the market.

Entrepreneurs strive to receive more and more income (profit), to use natural, labor and investment resources as economically as possible and to realize as widely as possible such a resource as their creative and organizational (so-called entrepreneurial) abilities in their chosen field of activity. This serves as a powerful incentive for the development and improvement of production and reveals the creative possibilities of private property.

Types of economic systems

The modern market economy is represented by several types of economic systems. The English economist Friedrich von Hayek especially notes the “anticipation of events” business activity, initiative and independence of economic entities operating in the specific conditions of these economic systems. Economic systems themselves can be divided into several types.

Definition 2

Under economic system is understood as a system of production and economic relations that determines the order of interaction between economic entities within the framework of certain rules and conditions stipulated or established by the legislation of a given state.

In the last two centuries, various types of economic systems have operated in the world.

In a market economy, prices for goods and services are set by the market under the influence of demand.

According to the law of demand operating in the market, the volume of purchases is inversely proportional to the price level. When prices fall, more consumers can make a purchase, and when prices rise, the number of buyers decreases.

Within certain economic systems, there may be different models of market economies. All of them are widely represented in the modern world. Of all economic systems, the market system has proven to be the most flexible: it is capable of restructuring and adapting to changing internal and external economic conditions.

In the second half of the 20th century, when the scientific and technological revolution unfolded widely and the production and social infrastructure began to develop especially rapidly, the state began to influence development much more actively national economy. In this regard, the economic mechanism, organizational forms of economic activity and economic relations between economic entities have changed (Table 1).

In a developed market economy, the economic mechanism undergoes significant changes. Planned management methods receive further development within individual firms in the form of a marketing management system. At the same time, at the macro level, the development of planning methods is associated with state regulation of the economy.

Planfulness acts as a means of actively adapting to market requirements; as a result, the key tasks of economic development receive a new solution. Thus, the issue of the volume and structure of manufactured products is resolved on the basis of marketing research within companies, as well as analysis priority areas NTP, forecast for the development of social needs at the macro level. A market forecast allows you to reduce the production of obsolete goods in advance and move to qualitatively new models and types of products. The marketing production management system creates the opportunity, even before the start of production, to bring the individual costs of companies producing the bulk of goods of this type into line with socially necessary costs.

Figure 1. Some differences between modern capitalism and pure capitalism

Note 1

State sectoral and national programs (plans) also have a significant impact on the volume and structure of goods and services produced, ensuring their greater compliance with changing social needs.

Questions studied

1. The concept of an economic system.

2. Types of economic systems.

Traditional economy (subsistence farming, traditional production, community ownership).

Market economy (private property, motivation, competition, freedom of enterprise, market pricing).

In the most general terms, the place of the state in a mixed economy can be reduced to the following points:

· Stabilization of the economy, that is, control over the level of employment and inflation generated by fluctuations in economic conditions, as well as stimulation of economic growth.

Despite common features, the economies of developed countries represent a variety of models of mixed economies, which is explained by a number of factors: the mentality of the nation, the course of historical development, geopolitical position, level of development and the nature of the material and technical base, etc. Let us consider some models of a mixed economy.

Main features of the American mixed economy model:

· low share of state ownership and little direct government intervention in the production process. Today, the US government budget receives about 19% national product;

· full encouragement of entrepreneurial activity. Basic principles economic policy are supporting freedom of economic activity, encouraging entrepreneurial activity, protecting competition, limiting monopolies;

· high level of social differentiation. American social classes vary markedly. The task of social equality is not raised at all. An acceptable standard of living is created for low-income segments of the population.

Main features of the European mixed economy model:

· active influence of the state on the functioning of the national market economy. Today at the state budget European Community countries receive from 29% (Spain) to 44% (Belgium) of the national product;

· protection of competition, encouragement of small and medium-sized businesses;

· strong social security system. In Western Europe, the social orientation of socio-economic systems is the highest in the modern world. The share of all costs for social needs in federal budget expenditures in most Western European countries is 60% or more, and in France and Austria even 73% and 78%, respectively. For comparison, these costs are 55% in the United States.

Features of the Japanese mixed economy model:

· coordination of government and private sector activities . Clear and effective interaction labor, capital and the state (trade unions, industrialists and financiers, government) in the interests of achieving national goals;

· special role of the state in the economy. Japan is a country with a strong government policy carried out without direct participation of the state in economic activity. Today, the Japanese government budget receives only 17% of the national product;

· special emphasis on the role of the human factor. The share of all spending on social needs in Japan is 45%. Low level unemployment in the country is explained by the traditions of social partnership, well-organized on-the-job training, and the widespread use of temporary contracts (or part-time work). The achievement of the Japanese economy is to reduce the proportion of the poor. If in the USA and EU countries this figure reaches approximately 15% of total number population, then in Japan it fluctuates around 1%.

Russian economy is at a complex and contradictory stage of development, designated as transitional - from an administrative-command system to a mixed one. The Russian model of a mixed economy is just taking shape, and in the future it is expected that it will combine national features and all the most promising of other models. The Russian model of a mixed economy should be based on:

· diversity of forms of ownership. A feature of the Russian mentality, on the one hand, is the craving for individualism, which developed under the influence of Europe. On the other hand - conciliarity, collectivism, state thinking. Historically, the Russian state played a significant role in the life of society. The characteristics of the Russian ethnic group must also be taken into account. According to the majority of experts in Russia, a public-private economic system is needed, in which state property should occupy approximately the same share as private property;

· variety of forms of entrepreneurial activity. The variety of forms of ownership implies a variety of forms of entrepreneurial activity. Moreover, the combination of private and public entrepreneurship is especially important for Russia;

· mixed economic mechanism for regulating the economy. At the first stages of economic reforms, reformers believed that when building a market economy, a prerequisite was to reduce the role of the state in the socio-economic life of society. The consequence of this was a deepening economic crisis, disorganization of reproductive processes, undermining the economic security of Russia. Today it can be argued that bringing the Russian economy out of the systemic crisis and ensuring sustainable economic growth is impossible without the active role of the state in regulating reproductive processes;

· variety of forms of distribution of the national product.

The limits of government intervention in the economy.

The most difficult problem in theoretical and practical terms is resolving the issue of acceptable limits of government intervention in the economy. Obviously, they must be determined by the possibility of the functioning of market laws. Otherwise, the market mechanism will collapse, and the economy may transform into a worse version of the command system. Western states have encountered similar limits more than once.

Social policy may conflict with market incentives to increase production, thereby weakening all the benefits of the market mechanism.

For example, the desire to provide a decent standard of living to all members of society in Sweden, in a state that was called the “welfare” state, forced the government to raise the level of taxation of individual income to 80%, which undermined the incentives of the highly paid part of the population for highly effective work, for mastering complex specialties and as a result led to a decrease in production efficiency and slowdown in labor productivity. On the other hand, for recipients of social benefits, the opportunity to ensure a completely tolerable standard of living without working gave rise to dependent attitudes among a certain part of them and did not contribute to strengthening the family (benefits were usually paid only to single mothers; if a woman got married, the payment of benefits stopped). This caused a decline in the efficiency of the Swedish economy.

In addition, it should be borne in mind that an excessive strengthening of the role of the state inevitably leads to bureaucratization, an exaggerated role of officials in the life of the country, and complicates the adoption of various kinds of decisions in the field of economics.

Thus, if the state tries to go beyond the role that is assigned to it in a market economy, then, no matter how good intentions it may be guided by, as a rule, disastrous deformations of market processes occur. In the end, the whole society suffers, including those sections of it that the state sought to help.

Let's read the information .

Economic system- a way of organizing the economic life of society, which is a set of ordered relationships between producers and consumers of material goods and services.

IN textbook"Social science. Complete reference book" edited by P.A. Baranov gives the following definition:

« Economic system- an established and operating set of principles, rules, laws that determine the form and content of basic economic relations that arise in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of an economic product.”

Today, economists distinguish 4 types of economic systems, using such basic criteria as the form of ownership of the main factors of production and the distribution of resources:

1.Traditional economic system

land and capital (the main factors of production) belong to the community, tribe or common use,

resources are distributed according to long-standing traditions.

2.Command (centralized or administrative) economic system. Type of economic organization in which

land and capital (fixed means of production) are owned by the state,

The state also distributes resources.

3.Market (capitalist) economic system. Type of economic organization in which

land and capital are privately owned,

resources are allocated using supply and demand markets.

4.Mixed economic system. Type of economic organization in which

land and capital (the main factors of production) are privately owned,

resources are distributed by the state and the market. See note below...

Types of economic systems	Main Characteristics
Traditional	1.collective property (land and capital - the main factors of production belong to the community, tribe or in common use) 2. the main motive for production is to satisfy one’s own needs (not for sale), i.e. predominates (farming, subsistence farming, etc.) 3. economic order - economic problems decided according to customs 4. the principle of distribution of resources and material goods - the additional product goes to the leaders or owners of the land, the rest of it is distributed according to customs. 5. economic development - the use of extensive technologies in production, which use the simplest tools and manual labor.
Command (centralized)	1.state ownership of everything material resources and enterprises. 2. The main motive for production is fulfilling the plan. 3.power of the producer. 4. the principle of collectivism in social relations. 5.centralized planning, universal state control. 6. equalizing principle of distribution of resources and material goods. 7.economic order - the introduction of strict administrative and criminal legal measures. 8.strictly fixed and unified prices and wage.
Market (capitalist)	1.various types of property (including private property). 2. The main motive for production is making a profit. 3.power of the consumer. 4. the principle of individualism in social relations. 5.freedom of entrepreneurship, the power of the state is limited. 6.entrepreneurial independence in matters of supply, production and sales. 7.personal interest is the main motive of economic behavior. 8.prices and wages are determined on the basis of market competition.
Mixed	1.private ownership of the vast majority economic resources. 2. state participation in the economy is limited (consists in the distribution of centralized economic resources to compensate for some weaknesses of market mechanisms). 3. focus on personal freedom of entrepreneurship, state guarantee of social support. 4.economic order - main economic issues decided by markets. 5. market principle of distribution of resources and material goods. 6. The main motive for production is personal interest and profit. 7. the most efficient use of limited resources is achieved. 8.susceptibility to STP (scientific and technological progress).

Let's look at examples .

Type of economic system

Traditional (patriarchal)

In the past it was characteristic of primitive society.

Currently, the features of a traditional economy prevail in backward countries South America, Asia and Africa etc.
America: Argentina, Barbados, Bolivia, Venezuela, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Dominica (both), Colombia, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Chile, Ecuador, etc.

Asia: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Indonesia, Jordan, Cambodia, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Mongolia, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Philippines, etc.
Almost all countries are so-called. (Angola, Zimbabwe, Cameroon, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Somalia, Sudan, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, etc.).

Wikipedia. List of countries by nominal (absolute) value of gross domestic product in dollar terms, calculated using market or government exchange rates.

Wikipedia. Economic system

Types and models of economic systems.

Wikipedia. List of states and dependent territories of Oceania

http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1 %83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2_%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81 %D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%85_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0 %B8%D0%B9_%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

1. Fundamentals of economic knowledge

Economy - economic activity society, as well as in general the totality of relations that develop in the system of production, distribution, exchange and consumption.

The word “economics” appears for the first time in scientific work in the 4th century. BC. from Aristotle, who calls it “natural science.” Aristotle contrasted economics with chrematistics - a branch of human activity related to profit-making. In modern philosophy, economics is viewed as a system of social relations, considered from the perspective of the concept of value. The main function of the economy is to constantly create the benefits that are necessary for people’s livelihoods and without which society cannot develop. Economics helps meet human needs in a world of limited resources. An economy is a management system that includes industries material production and the intangible sphere. Intangible sphere Economics is generally considered to be religion, art, science, health care, education, and sports. The economy of society is a complex and all-encompassing organism that ensures the livelihoods of each person and society as a whole.

In economic science, it is customary to divide economic activity into micro-, macroeconomic levels of production and the world economy (intereconomics).

There are four main forms of economy: market, administrative-command, traditional, mixed.

Economic theory is the study of the economy as a whole, how it functions, economic processes and phenomena at various levels. It is one of the oldest sciences.

Origins of economic science: the very first statements about economics and economic phenomena can be found in the teachings of thinkers of the ancient world. The best known today are the views of ancient Greek thinkers (Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle), who form the theoretical starting points of modern economic science.

As a science, economic theory arose in the 16th-17th centuries. This is the period of the formation of capitalism, the emergence of manufacture, the deepening of the social division of labor, the expansion of markets, and the intensification of money circulation. For these processes economics responds with the emergence of mercantilism - the first school that characterizes the development economic theory (political economy) Thomas Mann, Antoine Montchretien de Watteville, David Hume.

Another direction in the development of political economy was represented by the physiocrats, who represented the interests of large landowners.

The third direction of modern foreign economic thought is institutional-sociological, whose representatives are T. Veblen, J. Commons, W. Mitchell, J. Galbraith.

The market is the interaction of independent sellers and buyers. The essence of the market is most fully manifested in its elements.

The first elements of a market economy are producers and consumers. Some produce goods, others consume them. They create supply and demand. Demand appears on the market in the form of a need backed by money. Supply is the result of applying the most economical methods of production and efficient use of resources in the production of goods in demand. Supply and demand provide a constant connection between producers and consumers of material goods.

The second element of a market economy is prices. Prices are the result of supply and demand, the ratio of which fluctuates depending on the current market conditions.

The third most important element of the market mechanism is competition. These are competition from the firm's point of view and the division of economic power from the society's point of view. Adam Smith called competition the “invisible hand” of the market, thanks to which the selfish motives of individuals in the form of their own economic gain are turned to the benefit of the whole society. The main function of competition is to determine the value of economic regulators, which are price, rate of profit, interest, etc.

Depending on the various criteria markets can be divided:

1) according to the economic purpose of objects of market relations: markets for goods and services, markets for resources;

2) by product groups: markets for food and non-food products, markets for services;

3) by territorial basis: local (local), territorial (regional), national (republican) and world (international) markets;

4) according to the degree of restriction of competition, monopoly, oligopolistic, intersectoral;

5) by the nature of sales: wholesale and retail, public procurement markets;

6) on compliance with the rule of law: legal and illegal markets.

Advantages:

1) The market promotes more efficient use of resources. The desire to maximize profits will force you to use those resources that are plentiful, since they are cheap, and save rare resources, since they are expensive.

2) Contributes to the development of technology, the creation of new technologies, methods of organizing and managing production, so this increases profits.

3) Provides freedom of choice for consumers and producers.

The latter can be considered as a component of freedom in general and one of the most important goals in human life.

Flaws:

1) External effects. This is a situation where a third party not interested in the transaction receives benefits (positive externality) or costs (negative externality). Examples include the benefits of education to society and environmental problems as costs.

2) Does not stimulate production public goods. These are goods that have the properties of indivisibility and non-excludability, that is, they are used by everyone and for free. For example, national defense, street lighting.

3) Income inequality. On this score, the English economist W. Petty said the following: “There are no rich people where everyone is equally rich, just as there are no poor people where everyone is equally poor.” In a market system, those who have resources succeed. However, there are categories of people - outsiders. These are disabled people, old people, children. Without government help, these people are doomed to poverty.

4) Macroeconomic instability(does not guarantee full employment and stable price levels). The market system is characterized by cyclical development.

5) Asymmetric information, when one party to a transaction does not have all the information about the product.

2. Competition and monopoly

The word "competition" means clash. Indeed, in the system of a free market economy there is a constant clash and interaction of interests of the most diverse economic entities. These may be producers of homogeneous products, and then economists talk about intra-industry competition, or producers of different but interchangeable types of goods (the so-called inter-industry competition), or a clash of interests of consumers and producers, etc.

To characterize the level of competition in a particular market, the following indicators are used:

b number of producers and consumers in the market;

b type of products manufactured;

b the ability of an individual producer and consumer to influence market prices;

b barriers to entry into the industry;

b the absence or presence of non-price forms of competition.

The following types of competition exist:

1) Fair and unfair competition. In accordance with the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan “On Unfair Competition”, it includes any actions of a physical, legal entity or government agency that prevents competition. These may be actions such as horizontal mergers, collusion, disclosure of trade secrets, copying of someone else's trademark, distribution false information about the seller and his goods, etc.

2) Price and non-price competition. In price competition, rivals gradually reduce prices in order to expand their markets. In non-price competition, they compete with quality, additional service, trademark.

3) Perfect (pure) and imperfect competition. Perfect competition is characterized by the presence of many small independent sellers; homogeneous (standard) product, i.e. goods that have no variety; one firm accepts the market price; there are no barriers to entry of new firms into the industry; perfect information. It is customary to refer to such markets as industries Agriculture, stock and currency markets.

1. Natural monopolies

Natural monopolies arise, as a rule, in industries that provide the population with vital services and which are characterized by a positive effect from increasing the scale of production. This may include companies involved in the provision of electricity, gas, water, transport, for example the city metro, etc.

In these areas of the economy, meeting market needs with the help of one large company is cheaper, and therefore production is more efficient than when producing the same volume of goods and services by several smaller firms (scale of production).

2. Monopoly in the form of firm control over rare natural resources and knowledge.

Another reason for the emergence and maintenance of a special monopoly position by a company is the limited and irreproducible nature of individual natural resources(for example, oil). Control over the extraction and sale of this type of raw material creates special favorable conditions for their owners in the market and prevents other companies from entering the market in question.

The existence of state monopolies in the market for specific goods and services is caused by both the natural monopoly of individual state enterprises(for example, railway transport), and government restrictions on the influx of new firms into any industry (for example, in the field of export-import operations of strategically important goods, etc.).

Unlike a perfect competitor, who accepts the market price as given from the outside, the monopoly itself determines its prices based on the volume of market demand and the size of its costs. Market monopolization leads, as a rule, to a relative reduction in production volumes and higher market prices for goods sold. monopoly of goods and services. That's why in all developed countries throughout the world, the state pursues a more or less strict policy of regulating the activities of monopolies, especially natural ones, and encouraging the forces of competition in the market.

Monopoly (and monopsony) in the market is as rare a phenomenon as perfect competition. IN real economy most industries fall between these two extremes. Firms operating in these industries are neither perfect competitors nor pure monopolists.

3. Supply and demand

Demand for a product or service is the desire and ability of a consumer to buy a certain quantity of a product or service at a certain price in a certain period of time.

· individual demand is the demand of a specific subject;

Market demand is the demand of all buyers for a given product.

Quantity demanded is the quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing to buy at a certain price during a certain period of time.

A change in quantity demanded is a movement along the demand curve. Occurs when the price of a product or service changes and other equal conditions.

Law of Demand: Buyers will buy more goods at a low price and less at a high price.

Demand factors:

b tastes and preferences

b change in income

b prices for interchangeable goods

b changes in expectations of future prices

b population

b utility and demand

Complementary goods complement each other and are consumed together.

Substitute goods are interchangeable.

Offer of any good or service is the willingness of the producer to sell a certain quantity of a good or service at a certain price over a certain period of time.

Quantity supplied is the quantity of a good or service that sellers are willing to sell at a certain price during a certain period of time.

Factors influencing proposals:

· changes in prices for production factors;

· technical progress;

· seasonal changes;

· taxes and subsidies;

· Manufacturers' expectations;

· changes in prices for related products.

A change in the volume of supply occurs if all the factors determining the supply of a product remain constant, and only the price of the product in question changes. Thus, if the price changes, then there is a movement along the supply line.

When other factors that determine supply change and the price of the product remains constant, the supply itself changes, and the supply line on the graph shifts.

The supply and demand lines intersect at the point where the price at which buyers are willing to buy a certain quantity of a good equals the price at which producers are willing to sell the same quantity of a good. The point of intersection of the supply (S) and demand (D) lines, point E, is called the equilibrium point. When the market is at this point, the established price suits both buyers and sellers and they have no reason to demand its change. This state of the market is called market equilibrium. The sales volume at this point is called the equilibrium market volume (Qе). The price at this point is called the equilibrium (market) price (Pe). Thus, market equilibrium is a market state in which the volume of demand is equal to the volume of supply.

The law of supply and demand is objective economic law, which establishes the dependence of the volumes of demand and supply of goods on the market on their prices. All other things being equal, the lower the price of a product, the greater the effective demand for it (willingness to buy) and the less supply (willingness to sell). Usually the price is set at the equilibrium point between supply and demand. The law was finally formulated in 1890 by Alfred Marshall.

Quantity demand is the quantity of a good or service of a certain type and quality that a buyer wants to buy at a given price over a certain period of time. The amount of demand depends on the income of buyers, prices for goods and services, prices for substitute goods and complementary goods, buyer expectations, their tastes and preferences.

Law of demand - all other things being equal, an increase in price causes a decrease in the quantity demanded; a decrease in price is an increase in the quantity demanded, that is, it reflects the inverse relationship between price and quantity of goods.

The law of supply is an economic law according to which the supply of a product on the market increases with its price, all other things being equal (production costs, inflation expectations, product quality).

Essentially, the law of supply says that when prices are high, more goods are supplied than when prices are low. If we imagine supply as a function of price and the quantity of goods supplied, the law of supply characterizes the increase in the supply function throughout the entire domain of definition.

Similarly, the law of demand means that buyers are willing to buy more of a product at a low price than at a high price. The demand function as a function of price and the quantity of goods purchased decreases throughout the entire domain of definition.

4. Economic risks

Risk is a danger that threatens a successful outcome.

Risk - the risk of unexpected losses of expected profits, income or property, Money due to random changes in conditions or unfavorable circumstances. It is measured by frequency, the probability of occurrence of a particular level of losses. The most dangerous risks are those with a tangible probability of losses exceeding the expected profit. It is customary to distinguish the following types of risks:

Ш banking risk - the risk to which commercial banks are exposed;

Ш currency risk - the risk associated with unforeseen changes in the exchange rate of foreign currencies;

Sh credit risk- risk associated with the danger of non-repayment, incomplete repayment or untimely repayment of the loan;

Ш political risk - risk caused by the influence of political changes and military conflicts on economic processes;

Ш interest rate risk - the risk associated with unforeseen changes in interest rates;

Ш risk of infection - the risk that the problems of subsidiaries or associated companies will spread to the parent company.

Privatization is a reform of property relations aimed at transforming state and municipal enterprises into private ones.

The first stage (1991-1992) was the beginning of the restructuring of state property through the corporatization of most enterprises with varying degrees of state participation. At this stage, privatization was of a proactive nature: government bodies made a decision on privatization only after the enterprise staff submitted an application for privatization. Through auctions and competitions during 1991-1992, 4,770 objects were privatized, including 472 state farms transferred into collective ownership. Objects of retail trade, catering, consumer services, utilities accounted for 60% of the total number of privatized enterprises.

The results of the first stage of privatization served as an impetus for the development of entrepreneurship in Kazakhstan and marked the beginning of the formation of private property in the country.

The second stage (1993-1995) is characterized by the creation of a unified system of management and privatization of state property, the implementation of mass privatization, as well as privatization by individual projects and objects of the agro-industrial complex. In just these two years, within the framework of small privatization, the essence of which was the auction and competitive sale of retail facilities, consumer services and industrial enterprises employing up to 200 people, more than 6,000 objects were sold.

At the same time, work was carried out to corporatize state enterprises. This was the beginning of mass privatization (enterprises with 200 to 5,000 employees) and privatization on individual projects (enterprises with more than 5,000 employees).

As part of these areas of privatization, over 400 objects were sold. As part of the privatization of the agro-industrial complex, 1,967 enterprises were sold, which amounted to 93% of all agro-industrial complex objects.

The third stage (1996-1998) was the transition to sectoral privatization programs in the electric power industry and oil and gas industry. For each of these industries, a special program of object-by-object privatization was developed, mainly on individual projects, taking into account proposals from interested central and local executive authorities of Kazakhstan and the involvement of qualified consultants. As a result of the implementation of the third stage, 14,686 state property objects were privatized. Participation of foreign capital in privatization processes, use foreign experience in the management of domestic enterprises confirmed the correctness of the choice of strategy to attract foreign direct investment.

The fourth stage (1999-2000) is characterized by new approaches to the distribution of powers between levels government controlled and disposal of state property. The key point This period saw the division of state property into republican and communal. Providing the Akims of the regions, cities of Almaty and Astana with the right to make decisions and carry out privatization of municipal property really contributed to strengthening local government, ensuring the financial and economic independence of the regions. Thus, in 1999, state blocks of shares and participation interests in 953 were transferred to municipal ownership. joint stock companies and business partnerships. In the period 1999-2000, 6,688 state-owned properties were sold.

In 2000, the Management Concept was approved state property and privatization, on the basis of which two programs were adopted and implemented to improve the efficiency of state property management and privatization for 2001-2002 and 2003-2005.

In order to strengthen state control over strategic sectors of the economy in 2003, the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan “On state monitoring of property in sectors of the economy of strategic importance” was adopted.

Why is the public sector growing? The main reasons are:

increased spending on defense and military space research;

population growth;

problem solving environment and infrastructure;

solving social problems: unemployment, medical care, food crisis, housing provision, poverty.

Thus, government intervention in the economy is driven by the government's desire to alleviate the inefficiencies and "injustices" associated with the functioning of a market economy.

The state will always have its share in a market economy.

State regulation of the market (private capital) is aimed at achieving the following economic goals:

1. The economic growth. This goal involves increasing the volume of production of material goods, improving their quality, providing more high level life.

2. Economic efficiency. This goal requires obtaining the greatest (best) results with minimal expenditure of available limited production resources.

3. Full employment working population. The implementation of this goal will make it possible to provide everyone who is able and willing to work with an occupation (workplace) in accordance with their needs and qualifications.

4. Stable level prices A significant increase or decrease in the general price level destabilizes the economy as a whole, tension and various kinds of difficulties arise in economic activity (inflation and deflation), which are extremely important to avoid.

5. Economic freedom. Entrepreneurs and economic entities of a market economy must have a high degree of freedom in their economic activities.

6. Fair distribution of income: “For equal capital, equal profit”

7. Economic security.

8. Trade balance.

Direct regulation involves direct government intervention in national production in the following forms:

1) creation of new industrial facilities;

2) nationalization of unprofitable private enterprises;

3) purchase of shares of private enterprises.

Direct regulation leads to the creation of a public sector for the production of goods and services. It is historically determined that direct government intervention in the economy occurs primarily in industries that create public goods, i.e. benefits that everyone, without exception, needs for normal Everyday life. These industries, or areas of activity, are called infrastructure.

Indirect, or administrative, state regulation occurs through the distribution of legislative and executive powers, the creation of laws (decrees) to regulate economic activity. Such regulation is carried out without investment, without money. Indirect regulation covers the fiscal, monetary and foreign exchange spheres.

competition monopoly demand market

Posted on Allbest.ru

Elements of the economic system

Types of economic systems

Questions studied

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar documents