Unified State Exam section: 4.1. Industry structure farms.
Geography of the main branches of production and non-production spheres.

Farm- the totality of all types labor activity of people. - a set of national economies closely related to each other different countries, united by a system of international economic relations.

Sectoral structure of the economy- a set of its parts (industries and sub-industries), characterized by certain quantitative relationships and relationships.

Branch of the economy- a set of enterprises (or institutions) producing homogeneous products (or providing identical services).

The world economy consists of branches of the production (material) and non-production (intangible) spheres.

Manufacturing sector- the totality of all types production activities people who create material wealth. It includes:

• industry (heavy, light, food);
• agriculture (crop and livestock farming);
• transport (land, water, air)
• construction.

Non-production sphere is engaged in meeting the needs of the population for various types of services. It includes:

• science and education;
• medicine;
• connection;
• finance;
• trade;
• mobile connection;
• Internet;
• tourism, etc.

The relationship between industries determines type of farm structure . At the same time, agriculture and extractive industries are classified as primary sector economy, industry, construction and manufacturing - to secondary, services - to tertiary.

The relationship between industries is determined by:

• their share in the total volume of production (share in GDP);
• number of employees and the cost of fixed production assets (machinery, equipment, etc., used in material production).

If the primary sector predominates, this type of farm structure is called agricultural . He dominated the world until the beginning of the 18th century. Today it is represented in the least developed countries of Asia and Africa, where the share of agriculture and related industries in the economy is high.

If the secondary sector predominates, this type of economic structure is called industrial . Its formation began in the 18th century. in Europe with the beginning of the industrial revolution. Until the middle of the 20th century. was typical for all economically developed countries. But with the development of science and technology, these countries, one after another, parted with the industrial type of sectoral structure, in connection with which a special term arose - deindustrialization .

Today, the industrial structure of the economy is typical for some CIS countries, Eastern European countries, individual oil-producing countries and developing countries in Asia and Latin America. But in them the share of industry, like the share of agriculture, continues to decline, giving way to the non-productive sector.

If the tertiary sector predominates, this type of economic structure is called post-industrial (informational). It began to take shape in the second half of the 20th century. with the beginning of the era scientific and technological revolution(NTR).

By structure type world economy is post-industrial.

In addition to highly developed countries, small countries and microstates also have a post-industrial economic structure, which live off tourism and the provision of various types of trade and financial services. They are often called “apartment-leasing” countries. Examples include: Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Jordan, Bahamas and Seychelles, Republic of Maldives, etc.

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Introduction

Acceleration scientific and technological progress constantly makes new, increasingly higher demands on the economy and society of various countries participating in the world economy, creating tension in the interrelations of its divisions. At present, there is every reason to talk not only about the emergence, but also about the deepening of the structural crisis of the world economy.

The first acutely noticeable signs of the crisis appeared in the early 70s. The structural restructuring of those years significantly changed the sectoral priorities of economic development. The increasing role of resource conservation and the fall in demand for traditional types of raw materials have sharply limited the development of a number of basic industries and increased the development of knowledge-intensive ones.

World economy is a complex, mobile system that is in constant change. Therefore, today the internationalization of the world economy has reached a new level, which is facilitated by integration processes. Enormous changes have occurred in the development of productive forces. World production is almost twice as fast as population growth. Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, qualitative transformations of the world's productive forces are taking place. A technological revolution is underway in industrialized countries. Computer science and communications, modern automation and the use of robots, new artificial materials (polymers, composites, ceramics, etc.) have changed the face of production and products. Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, profound structural changes took place in the economy; in the industrialized countries of the West, the transition to an intensive type of reproduction was completed.

Economic development as a consequence of the mobility of the world economic system is inextricably linked with changes in the relationship between sectors and branches of the national economy. In some cases, further development is impossible without transformations of the sectoral structure, which is typical for the process of transformation of post-socialist countries. In others, structural changes are a consequence of growth. There is a functional relationship between economic growth and changes in industry structure. Therefore, the sectoral structure of the world economy is under the close attention of analysts.

Despite the attention of analysts, this problem is not covered in sufficient detail in the literature, but this is not surprising, because economists for the most part try to analyze not the industry structure itself, but the reasons that give rise to it. Current state(international division of labor at the present stage, integration processes, the influence of scientific and technological progress).

The main goal of this work is also its main difficulty. It consists in systematizing and summarizing the available information, providing as accurate data as possible, identifying the actual state of the sectoral structure of the world economy, showing the distribution of world industrial capacity, linking it with the economic development of individual countries.

Chapter I. Industry economic feasibility study of production

1.1. Sectoral structure of the economy

The economy of any country is a national economic complex arising on the basis of social and economic development, interregional division of labor and integration processes.

The sectoral or component structure of the national economic complex reflects the relationships, connections and proportions between in large groups industries.

The entire national economic complex is divided into groups of industries:

n industries material production: industry, construction, agriculture, as well as industries related to the supply of products to the population, that is, procurement, logistics, trade and public catering;

n non-production sectors: housing and communal services, consumer services, transport, communications, etc.;

n social services for the population: healthcare, science, culture and art, education, branches of management and defense.

For the study of any national economic complex, the sectoral functional classification is of great importance. It includes four groups of industries: 1) primary - mining and agriculture; 2) secondary - manufacturing industry; 3) transport, trade, housing construction, healthcare, servicing production and population; 4) management, science and scientific services.

The development of production leads to the constant emergence of new branches of production, especially on the basis of scientific and technological progress. At the same time, there is a process of reducing the share of extractive industries due to the growth of knowledge-intensive ones.

For the modern structure of the national economy characteristic feature is the presence of industry and inter-industry complexes. Moreover, the process of strengthening production ties and integrating different stages of production is currently underway. Such inter-industry complexes have emerged as fuel and energy, metallurgical, mechanical engineering, chemical and forestry, construction, agro-industrial, and transport. All these complexes, in turn, have a complex and differentiated structure.

In the context of the development of market relations, infrastructure is becoming increasingly important. Infrastructure is a collection material resources to meet production and social needs. It is divided into production and social. The production infrastructure includes transport, communications, warehouse and packaging facilities, logistics, engineering structures, heating mains, water supply, communications and networks, gas and oil pipelines, irrigation systems, etc.; social - passenger transport, public utilities in cities and towns. Infrastructure, both industrial and social, plays a vital role in the complexity of the national economy and in the development of new territories. I would like to note that at the starting level of the transition to market relations in our country, an irrational industry structure developed. Material production sectors account for over 70%, non-production sectors - less than 30%. The market economy in civilized countries is characterized by different proportions; in most of them, over 50% are branches of the social, non-productive sphere.

Modern industry is characterized high level specializations. As a result of the deepening social division of labor, arose

many industries, sub-sectors and types of production that together form the sectoral structure of industry, which is determined by many social and economic factors. The main ones are: the level of production development, technological progress, socio-historical conditions, production skills of the population, natural resources. The most significant factor determining changes in the sectoral structure of industry is scientific and technological progress and its main directions - automation, computerization and mechanization of production, improvement of technology, specialization and cooperation of production. Changes and improvements in the sectoral structure of industry under the influence of scientific and technological progress occur continuously.

In the current classification of industry, five complex industries are identified. Thus, the fuel and energy complex includes branches of the fuel and energy industries (coal, oil, gas, shale, peat, electric power). Scientific and technological progress has a particularly great influence on the industrial structure of mechanical engineering, where such industries as electrical engineering, instrument making with sub-sectors are developing: the production of computer equipment, control and regulation devices for complex technological processes, robots, etc. new sub-sectors have been created in the metallurgical, chemical and other industries.

Industry is divided into mining and manufacturing. Manufacturing industries form the basis of heavy industry. They account for 90% of the total industrial output. According to the economic purpose of products, all industry is divided into two large groups: production of means of production (group A) and production

production of consumer goods (group B). Share of products of the group's industries

This also influenced the change in the structure of foreign trade. In general, it shifted towards manufacturing products. At the end of the 80s, it accounted for 75% of the world's foreign trade volume (1980 - 58%), in developing countries - 68% of the foreign trade volume (1980 - 42%). At the same time, developing countries not only began to export more manufactured products, but also began to import more knowledge-intensive goods.

1.2. Quantification and territorial aspect

specialized industries

The distribution of resources throughout the world, as well as the organizational forms in which resources are used, have an important influence on the functioning of the sectoral structure of the economic system. The national economic complex of a single country is distinguished by a complex structure, in which, along with the sectoral one, it is necessary to highlight an equally important structure - the territorial one.

The territorial structure is understood as the division of the national economic system into territorial cells (taxa) - zones, regions of different ranks, industrial centers, nodes. It changes much more slowly than

sectoral structure, since its main elements are more closely tied to the

specific territory. However, the development of new territories with unique natural resources changes the structure of individual regions and contributes to the formation of new territorial complexes.

The spatial combination of industries and individual industries is influenced by many factors. These include mine security

natural resources, fuel and energy, material, labor. The noted factors are closely related to each other, having a certain impact on the location of enterprises and sectors of the national economy. In the process of placing production, various forms have emerged territorial organization. There are large economic zones, industrial areas, industrial agglomerations, industrial hubs, industrial centers and industrial points.

The analysis of the sectoral structure of the economy is carried out on the basis GDP indicator, calculated by industry. First of all, the relationship between large national economic sectors of material and non-material production is studied. This ratio is revealed primarily by the share of the manufacturing industry.

To quantify the level of specialization of economic regions, indicators such as the localization coefficient, the per capita production coefficient and the inter-district marketability coefficient are used. Also, one of the main criteria for the location of industries in a certain territory is their indicator economic efficiency(product cost taking into account its delivery to the consumer, specific capital investments per unit of power and profit). Along with the indicated indicators for each branch of production, a system of technical and economic indicators for its placement is being developed. Important to justify the location of production, they have the provision of workers with basic production assets, power supply, resource reserves, etc.

Chapter II. Sectoral structure of the world economy

1.1. International division of labor

At present, it is impossible to identify a country that would consider non-participation in the world economy to be in its national interests. The market method of management has become one of the recognized values ​​of all civilizations. From the perspective of the world economy, the following three attract attention: modern tendencies development:

n significant expansion of forms business activity that directly lead to increased foreign investment;

n decisive emphasis on internationally operating production, which is primarily associated with transnational corporations;

n practical confirmation of ideas about the possibility of different national paradigms in determining the forms, methods and means of integration in the world economy.

Throughout human history, the development social production was associated with the progress of the division of labor, including national-territorial and intercountry. Various types and forms of exchange of economic activities between countries have led to the emergence of specific international relations, covering trade, as well as the movement of capital, labor, scientific and technological knowledge, experience and information.

Constant changes in the nature of labor under the influence of scientific and technological progress are accompanied by increased specialization and focus of certain industries and countries on the production of specific goods that bring the greatest economic benefit. At the same time, along with the deepening economic differences of individual groups of producers, their interdependence increases not only in the exchange of labor results, but also in the organization of joint production on the principles of cooperation, combination, and complementarity of production, technological and resource-sales processes. Consequently, the international division of labor both “separates” producers and creates economic incentives for them to “unite”, consolidate efforts at various stages of production, sale of goods and services.

Strengthening the internationalization of economic life is one of the main features of today's development of the world economy. It is based on the deepening of international specialization of production, with which such forms of participation of all countries in world economic relations as international trade goods and services, international migration of capital and labor, integration.

Shifts in the nature of the development of the global division of labor over the past 10-15 years have significantly changed the conditions for international specialization. The acceleration of scientific and technological progress has added new incentives to the traditional factors of production specialization, making an appropriate restructuring of the structure of production and exports urgently necessary.

Economic progress in our time should be assessed in two interrelated, although not necessarily coinciding, dimensions. To determine its components, it is advisable to supplement generally accepted standard indicators of the level, structure, dynamics of production and consumption with data characterizing the participation of each country in international division labor, and the resources on which this participation relies. The last group of data contains unique information about the competitiveness of local products, which, to a first approximation, can serve as an indicator of the effectiveness of the relevant industries in terms of world standards. The international division of labor actually includes many areas economic activity. The place and role of any country in the international division of labor is determined by the totality of its real import needs and export capabilities, since both are necessary to identify economic potential worldviews of countries.

The Second World War, and then the Cold War, turned out to be an obstacle to the development of global economic relations, stopping it for a long time. Nevertheless, world economic ties gradually strengthened, especially after the collapse of the colonial system and the deployment (with strong support Soviet Union) the struggle of national independent states for economic independence and a radical change in the order prevailing in the world capitalist economy, which allowed some countries to develop and prosper at the expense of other states and peoples.

The specificity of relations between, relatively speaking, the industrialized North - Western states, and the South - former colonies (developing countries) consisted in the desire of some groups financial capital(mainly invested in energy, mineral and raw material resources) to maintain at the core the previous system of relations of the world economy, only to some extent modernizing it taking into account the requirements of developing countries. At the same time, another group of financial capital (representing mainly knowledge-intensive, high-tech industries of the largest investors) adhered to a different strategy: it sought to overcome the underdevelopment of former colonies and dependent countries in order to in the future (already in alliance with the large emerging in these countries capital) to strengthen its position in increasingly intensified competition.

Intensifying rivalry in various fields international economic relations has caused profound changes in the world economy. Monocentrism (the overwhelming superiority of the United States over other countries included in the world capitalist economy) was replaced by polycentrism. Integration processes could not be limited to the European continent. The interdependence of countries and peoples, strengthened by the impact of the modern scientific and technological revolution and the spread in depth and breadth of the market economic mechanism, became a “categorical imperative” of the time.

It is significant that the formation of the world economy ended about a century ago, when its subjects - the powers, which at that time were called imperialist, colonialist, forcibly pulled the whole world into the orbit of their foreign economic relations. Relations between the center and the periphery at that time were characterized as exploitative, because there was an unequal redistribution of resources and the “export” of certain economic models by the metropolises to dependent countries.

In the second half of the twentieth century, especially in its last quarter, these relations were significantly restructured. First, industrialized countries have demonstrated the ability to develop effectively without colonies. The post-imperialist stage of their development coincided with the transition to a post-industrial model (energy- and resource-saving intensive production with widespread use of technological progress).

Secondly, the modern scientific and technological revolution, universal and dynamic in nature, has acquired fundamentally new forms of its deployment on the basis of the established socially oriented market mechanism.

Thirdly, the market economic model has acquired a general, universal character. The sphere of international division of labor has received an organic national market basis in all corners of the globe. This contributes to the emergence of new powerful impulses for the economic rapprochement of countries and peoples, the gradual transformation foreign economic relations into world economic relations of equal cooperation that form the features of the modern world economy.

Fourthly, energy, currency, raw materials and other global crises (in particular, the debt of developing countries) predetermined significant fluctuations in world markets for goods and services. In general, the cyclical and structural crises of the 70s, 80s and early 90s had a profound impact on changes in the system of relations of the world economy. It, as already noted, increasingly began to acquire a homogeneous, global market character (despite the remaining differences in the nature of the system of different countries, in particular its specificity in Russia and the countries of Eastern Europe, in the PRC, Laos, the DPRK, the Far Eastern Republic, in Cuba). In this regard, the forms and types of relations within the world economy are showing serious qualitative shifts in their development.

Along with deepening traditional types The international division of labor is strengthening the subject, detail, technological, organizational and managerial division of labor both at the intra-company, inter-country, and interstate levels. Various kinds of economic, financial, scientific, technical and other relations are increasingly intertwined in terms of both interstate treaties and agreements, and unions, alliances, strategic associations between corporations. At the same time, the severity of the contradictions between rival states and companies not only does not decrease, but, on the contrary, intensifies. However, paradoxically, rivalry, which reaches acute forms of struggle in world markets for sources of raw materials (primarily energy resources), not only does not split the economic world, but also strengthens its integrity and the interdependence of states and corporations.

2.1. Distribution of world industrial sectors

In industrialized countries, the general pattern of industry shifts is a noticeable decrease in the share of primary industries and agriculture, technical modernization of industry and the rapid growth of service sectors. The most radical changes occur at the level of sub-sectors, within which knowledge-intensive industries have the highest dynamics. Thus, in the US manufacturing industry, the decrease in the number of employees occurred mainly due to traditional industries with high labor intensity of production (food, textiles, clothing, leather), as well as due to capital-intensive industries (in particular, metallurgy). At the same time, the number of employees in the electrical engineering and instrument making industry has increased over the past 5 years by more than 1.5 times.

Characteristic changes are occurring in the industrial structure of developing countries, especially the so-called newly industrialized countries (NICs). These countries, primarily the East Asian Four (Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong), increasingly specializing in technically complex and knowledge-intensive production, relying on product quality and highly qualified workers. Advantages in the production of the simplest labor-intensive products (for example, textiles, clothing, shoes) can only be retained by countries with cheaper labor force, which later embarked on the path of export expansion (Sri Lanka, Indonesia, the Philippines, Bangladesh). They are achieving competitiveness where newly industrialized countries have lost their position due to rising labor costs. Therefore, at the moment there is a clear tendency to actively move labor-intensive industries from more developed to less developed countries, and vice versa, technology-intensive industries - from less developed to more developed ones. It should be noted that among the countries with cheaper labor, the most successful are those that manage to combine the advantages of cheap labor with the selective use of modern scientific and technological achievements.

The modern understanding of the structure of the economy is based on the theory of three sectors, the foundations of which were laid by K. Clark. According to this theory, the national economy consists of primary, secondary and tertiary sectors. The dynamics of the structure were analyzed and substantiated by J. Fourastier and S. Kuznets. This theory is based on the hypothesis of a certain sectoral stage of development of a market economy. It is believed that development proceeds consistently from a society in which the majority of the economically active population is engaged in the extraction and production of raw materials (primarily in agriculture), to an industrial and then post-industrial society (“service” economy), where the bulk of the population is employed in the service sector.

The change in the ratio of sectors is accompanied by structural changes in industry. There is a point of view that from 1880 to our time, five large cycles Kondratiev, differing from each other in the specifics of the main innovation processes. In the third and fourth cycles (since 1900) the industrial society, and in the third (1900-1950) the innovation base and impetus for development are created by the chemical and electrical industries, and in the fourth (1950-1990) - by the petrochemical and automotive industries. The basis of the fifth cycle, which began around 1990, is information technology.

In individual countries, structural changes are caused by different but interrelated reasons. This applies to both sectoral and industry sections. In general, it can be stated that there is causation between the level of economic development of a country and the sectoral structure of its economy. Structural changes are determined by internal factors associated with the movement of demand or supply due to technological progress, and external factors caused by trends in the global economy.

The theory of three sectors explains fundamental structural changes primarily by the different dynamics of demand for the products of industries, which is caused by changes in per capita incomes of the population and an uneven increase in demand for individual products as income grows. Besides, important factor is the level of labor productivity.

The theory under consideration is not indisputable and may cause certain objections. However, experience confirms its validity at least in relation to developed countries. Therefore, economists and politicians recognize the existence of certain trends in the development of sectors and industries, i.e. structural changes in the economy, and highlight societies with a predominance of the service industry. German President R. Herzog notes: “Sooner or later we will still have to get used to the shock of the new industrial revolution. Just as 100 years ago traditional industry replaced agriculture, which had previously been the most important sector of the economy, so in modern conditions an ever-increasing share of the gross domestic product will come from the information industry, security environment and the service sector rather than on traditional industry.”

Economic growth on a global scale is associated with a shift in the center of gravity of economic activity from agriculture to industry, and then to the service sector. With the beginning of industrialization comes the accelerated growth of industry, as a result of which its share in the national economy increases and, accordingly, the share of agriculture decreases. The service sector is also developing, but relatively slowly.

In Germany around 1800, 80% of the working population was employed in the primary sector, 8% in the secondary sector and 12% in the tertiary sector. Since that time, the share of people employed in agriculture began to decrease, and in industry to increase. During 1882-1970, the share of employees in the primary sector decreased from 42 to 9%, in the secondary sector it increased from 36 to 49%, reaching the highest value compared to other sectors of the economy, in the tertiary sector it increased from 22 to 42%.

Since the late 60s, structural changes began to occur in the economies of developed countries, radically transforming the relationship between sectors. The process of deindustrialization began and economic growth, aimed at the primary development of the service sector, which began to progress faster than industry. At the same time, industry developed faster than agriculture. In Germany, the process of deindustrialization was clearly manifested in the dynamics of the number of employees in certain sectors of the economy. Thus, over the period 1970-1985, the share of employees in the primary sector decreased from 9 to 5%, in the secondary sector - from 49 to 41, and in the tertiary sector - increased from 42 to 53%. In 1994, the number of people employed in the national economy was distributed as follows: 3.5%, 39.1%, 57.4%. At the same time, the process of deindustrialization did not lead to a drop in industrial production. On the contrary, it increased due to increased labor productivity.

As for the distribution of world industrial capacity, in order to most fully characterize the current state of the sectoral structure of the world economy, it is necessary to consider individual groups of countries and their contribution to the world economy from the point of view of sectoral structure.

The extremely high capacity of the domestic market gives the United States a unique place in the global economy. The industry of this country consumes about one third of all raw materials mined in the world. The United States has the world's largest market for machinery and equipment. It accounts for over 40% of mechanical engineering products sold in developed countries. Having the most developed mechanical engineering, the United States has simultaneously become the largest importer of mechanical products. The United States receives more than one quarter of the world's exports of machinery and equipment, purchasing almost all types of equipment. By the beginning of the 90s, a stable progressive economic structure had developed in the United States, in which the predominant share belongs to the production of services. Their share in GDP is more than 60%, the share of material production is 37% and about 2.5% is agricultural products. The role of the service sector in employment is even more significant: here it accounted for three quarters of the self-employed population in the early 90s. American corporations firmly hold the lead in the world in such areas of scientific and technical progress as the production of aircraft and spacecraft, over

powerful computers and their software, production of semiconductors and the latest high-power integrated circuits, production of laser equipment, communications equipment, biotechnology. The United States accounts for more than half of the major innovations generated in developed countries. In a sense, the United States is the main “incubator” of technical innovations for the whole world. The country continues to be the largest producer of products high technology, or as it is commonly called - high-tech products: their share in the world production of these products in the early 90s was 36%, Japan - 39%, Germany - 9.4%, the EU of 12 countries - 29%. Another area where the Americans hold a very strong position is the processing of accumulated knowledge and the provision of information services. This factor plays a very significant role, since fast and high-quality information support has begun to increasingly determine the efficiency of the entire production apparatus.

In Western European countries, the transition to new conditions of reproduction was accompanied by a crisis in traditional industries. The protectionist nature of the European Community, protecting many industries (ferrous metallurgy, chemistry, textile industry) from outside competition, contributed to the aging of the economic structure. All this manifested itself in the deepening of the structural crises of the mentioned industries. Western Europe's share of industrial production in OECD countries fell from 49% in 1970 to 32.2% in 1990. The shipbuilding, ferrous metallurgy, textile and coal industries experienced a structural crisis. Industries that were growth stimulators, such as automotive, chemicals, and electrical engineering, were faced with a reduction in domestic demand and changes in the international division of labor. The most dynamic industries include the electronics industry, in which the production of equipment has gained predominant development.

devices for industrial and special purposes, primarily computers. In the past decade, Western Europe has lagged somewhat behind its main competitors in the progressiveness of its industrial structure. Products in high demand account for 25% of EU manufacturing output, approximately 30% in the US and almost 40% in Japan. Country comparisons on the structure of the manufacturing industry show that mechanical engineering and heavy industry have developed in the leading countries of the region. The share of chemistry is also significant. Many Western European countries are large producers of consumer products. The mining industry occupies a modest place in Western Europe - less than 1% of total GDP (Greece - 4%, Spain - 1.3%). About 30 types of minerals are mined, but only 3-4 of them in quantities significant on a global scale (zinc, bauxite, potash, nickel). More noticeable are the differences in structural indicators for the share of agriculture in the formation of GDP - from 1.5 to 8%. Highly developed countries have reached almost the limit for this indicator (2-3% of GDP). Western Europe accounts for about one fifth of world agricultural production. The leading producers in this area are France, Germany, Italy, and Great Britain. Serious changes have occurred in the fuel and energy balance of Western European countries. There was a relative reduction in energy consumption, and oil consumption decreased absolutely. Shifts in the structure of the energy balance are associated with a fall in the share of oil, a significant increase in the share of nuclear energy, and an increasing role of natural gas. In general, shifts in the economies of Western European countries are going in one direction - a reduction in the share of material production sectors in GDP and an increase in the share of services. It is this sector that currently largely determines the growth of national production and the dynamics of investment. It accounts for one third of the economically active population. This increases the importance of Western European countries as a financial center and a center for providing other types of services. But despite the same trends, the industrial structure of Western European countries still has quite significant differences, which is explained by the stability of monopolistic structures national economies.

They occupy a relatively modest place in world production developing countries. The importance of the “third world” countries in the planetary economic system determined by their rich natural and human resources. In the mid-80s, they contained 2/3 of the total industrial reserves of 8 types of mineral raw materials, over 1/3 of such minerals as iron ore, molybdenum, uranium, about 1/4 of the industrial reserves of tungsten, manganese, lead, chromium , zinc. Developing countries have a significant share of world reserves precious metals and stones. Previously, developing countries' participation in international economic exchanges essentially relied on abundant, relatively inexpensive natural raw materials and cheap labor. Both of these factors, although not without difficulties, made it possible for a long time to maintain more or less acceptable levels of exports. But due to the decrease in the material and energy intensity of the growth of developed market economies, the role of natural raw materials in international trade has a clear tendency to decline. Therefore, the lag in the development of new technologies with their opportunities for diversification and improvement of production, modification of the commodity structure of international trade, accompanying the use of such technologies, have noticeably weakened the traditional positions of these countries and placed most of them in the face of relative exclusion from the world market, reducing their share in total exports peace. The decline in growth rates primarily affected industry. In 1980-1989, compared with 1965-1980, average annual growth rates of industrial production fell in all regions of the developing world except South Asia. The average annual growth rate of agricultural production in the last decade, in comparison with 1965-1989, on the contrary, has increased slightly. But no matter how the possible consequences of these processes are assessed by experts, their overall results, recorded by international statistics, indisputably indicate that in developed countries there is an increase in the industrial component in the sectoral structure (Table 1).

Table 1.

Structure of industrial exports of developing countries (%).

In the early 1980s, a new structural system was developed in the People's Republic of China. economic policy, which planned to ensure balanced development of industry and agriculture. As a result of this process, a change in priorities led to a change in the ratio of agriculture, heavy and light industry. The volume of gross industrial output in the 80s increased by an average of 12%, and the volume of gross agricultural production by 8.5%. The role of light industry in industrial production has increased: the share of heavy industry in the growth of gross industrial output in 1981-1991 was 43-45%, while the share of light industry was 55-57%. Currently, the Chinese economy is characterized by a chronic lag in energy and transport. The main branches of the manufacturing complex of Chinese heavy industry are mechanical engineering and metalworking, however, in general, the range of engineering products in China is still limited compared to

industrialized countries, and does not reach the world level. The textile industry is in second place in terms of production volume. In 1992, fabric production amounted to 19.3 billion. One of the most dynamic sectors of Chinese industry is the electronics industry. By 1990, the production of electronic products increased 6.5 times compared to 1982, the share of electronics was 5%, which is not much lower than the same figure for Japan. The chemical industry is developing rapidly, with an average annual growth rate of 14.5%. In the agricultural sector, trends towards intensification of production currently prevail. A processing industry has emerged. All this allowed the PRC to achieve high quantitative indicators and become one of the agriculturally developed countries.

The main sector of the economy of most countries in Tropical Africa is agriculture, designed to provide food for the population and serve as a raw material base for the development of the manufacturing industry. It employs the majority of the region's amateur population and creates the bulk of the total national income. In many countries of Tropical Africa, agriculture occupies a leading place in exports, providing a significant portion of foreign exchange earnings. In the last decade, an alarming picture has been observed with the growth rate of industrial production, which allows us to talk about the actual deindustrialization of the region. If in 1965-1980 they (on average per year) amounted to 7.5%, then in the 80s only 0.7%; a drop in growth rates took place in the 80s in both the mining and manufacturing industries. For a number of reasons, the mining industry plays a special role in ensuring the socio-economic development of the region, but this production is also decreasing by 2% annually. A characteristic feature of the development of the countries of Tropical Africa is the weak development of the manufacturing industry. Only in a very small group of countries (Zambia, Zimbabwe, Sinegal) does its share in GDP reach or exceed 20%.

There is no other industrialized country in the world like Japan, in which so much money is invested in the renewal and expansion of production capacities and in the renewal of fixed capital. And always taking into account future technologies and competitors. The most common position to explain the Japanese economic leap was the influence of the scientific and technological revolution - the widespread introduction of electronic computer technology, informatization of control systems, automation of technological processes and design. Today, to this list we can add the use of achievements in biotechnology and optoelectronics, the use of video technologies and heavy-duty synthetic substitutes (ceramics), robotization of conveyor lines, etc. All this confirms the conclusion about the enormous progress in the field of scientific and technical research and development at the stage that began in worldwide technological revolution. The Japanese economy appears to us as an orderly multi-level system of integrations. Even the average annual growth rate of industrial production in developed countries in Japan is much higher and more stable than in other countries (Table 2).

In general, the experience of developed countries clearly shows what inexhaustible opportunities the market economy and the structure of industries provide not just to overcome the crisis, but for rapid economic growth, a radical improvement in the living situation of the population, and the modernization of industry and the creation of new industries. The development of new industries requires government support for industry. The openness of the national economy, which presupposes the perception of advanced technologies and quality standards, the correct orientation to world markets and integration into the system of the international division of labor, is the most important prerequisite for rapid progress. Therefore, restoring and strengthening competitiveness in the field of new technologies should be declared a central task federal government any country.

Dynamics of industrial production in developed countries

(% increase or decrease compared to previous year)

2.3. Scientific and technological progress as the main factor

location of global economic sectors

Today, in industrialized and technologically developed countries, economic activity What is important is not the scale of the products produced, but their quality and structure, variability in relation to constantly changing demand. The latter is decisively determined by the level of scientific and technological development and the competitiveness of production. The level of scientific and technological development largely depends on the costs of scientific research and development, the saturation of the economy with scientists, inventors, engineers, activists of the innovation process, and the share of the high-tech sector in the industrial structure of industrial production.

According to the latest data published in the West, the United States spends more money on R&D than Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy combined. In fact, the United States accounts for about 50% of the R&D costs of the entire capitalist world. However, the share of these costs in GDP in the United States is slightly lower than in Japan and Germany.

However, the United States and Western Europe are losing their relative positions in the production of high-tech products. The US share in the world market for these products in 1980 was 40%, in 1988 - 37, the share of EU countries was 35 and 31%, respectively, and the share of Japan during this time increased significantly: from 18 to 27%. Japan still has the world's largest trade surplus in high-tech products.

The ever-increasing competition from trading rivals in the world market is forcing countries to reorient their resources from the production of traditional products to the production of the most complex, high-tech products, and to move from a labor-intensive to a knowledge-intensive business profile. The share of the high-tech sector in US manufacturing output increased from 20% in 1980 to 29% in 1988, in Western Europe from 16 to 21%, respectively. But the most significant shift in this regard was made by Japan: it managed to reach the American share of the high-tech sector in 1984, and in 1987 surpass the United States.

High-tech industries are based on the latest achievements of science and technology and are characterized by high knowledge intensity; they require high capital and wage intensity (Table 3).

All of the above is very different from the situation with scientific and technological progress in Russia. The share of R&D costs in Russian GDP is about 1.5%.

Capital investment and wages

by US manufacturing industry in 1988

(in dollars)

The development of the scientific and technological revolution has a focal character, since it is mainly concentrated in economically advanced countries. First of all, because R&D expenses increase the capital intensity of production. Rising capital intensity creates an investment barrier to the production of new goods. And as a result, the use of microelectronics and robotics, due to their labor-saving effect, undermines the competitiveness of industrial exports of developing countries, since it relies on the cheapness of local labor, since most developing countries are at the earliest stages of the industrial revolution.

In general, in recent decades, scientific and technological progress has mainly manifested itself in the so-called functional shifts within the existing industrial and production structure (with the exception of the production of personal computers). The markets are dominated not by new products, but by improved ones, not by new technologies, but by rationalized existing products based on innovations. Studies show that 8% of products that appeared on world markets in the late 70s are fundamentally new in their properties and 12% are new in their manufacturing technology. The rest of the bulk falls on improving or pseudo-innovations, which affects changes in the industry structure.

Conclusion

To summarize the above, we can definitely conclude that the global economy is experiencing a downward trend in the share of primary industries and agriculture, technical modernization of industry and rapid growth of service industries. This is confirmed by the fact that the decrease in the number of employees occurs mainly due to traditional industries with high labor intensity of production (food, textile, clothing, leather), as well as due to capital-intensive industries (in particular, metallurgy), and an increase in the number of employees - in the electrical industry and instrument making.

Economic growth on a global scale is also associated with a shift in the center of gravity of economic activity from agriculture to industry, and then to the service sector. There is an accelerated growth of industry, as a result of which its share in the national economy increases and, accordingly, the share of agriculture decreases. The service sector is also developing, but relatively slowly. But just as 100 years ago traditional industry replaced agriculture, which had previously been the most important sector of the economy, so in modern conditions an ever-increasing share of gross domestic product falls on the information industry, environmental protection and the service sector, and not on traditional industry.

As for the distribution of global industrial capacity, developed countries continue to specialize in technically complex and knowledge-intensive industries, relying on product quality and highly qualified workers. The advantages in the production of the simplest labor-intensive products, agriculture and the supply of raw materials can be retained by countries with a lower level of scientific and technological progress and cheap labor - developing and economically backward countries. Although it should be taken into account that developing countries are increasingly beginning to specialize in high-tech products. Therefore, at the moment there is a clear tendency to actively move labor-intensive industries from more developed to less developed countries, and vice versa, technology-intensive industries - from less developed to more developed ones.

Literature

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2. Modern economics: Public course. - Rostov-on-D.: publishing house “Phoenix”, 1996. - 608 p.

3. Economics: Textbook / Ed. Assoc. A.S. Bulatova. - M.: BEK Publishing House, 1996. - 632 p.

4. Adno Yu. Ferrous metallurgy at the turn of the century // World Economy and international relationships. - 1995. - No. 10, p. 134-142.

5. Auctionek S. Industrial enterprises and economic policy // World economy and international relations. - 1996. - No. 6, p.

6. Babyshev L. Tourism as a branch of the Italian economy // World economy and international relations. - 1995. - No. 12, p.

7. Basina E. “Scientific and technical” intelligentsia and reform // World Economy and International Relations. - 1995. - No. 3, p.

8. Bragina E., Gumen R. World industry: statics and dynamics // World economy and international relations. - 1995. - No. 5, p. 131-140.

9. Bubennikov A. High-tech industry in the era of global competition // World Economy and International Relations. - 1993. - No. 8, p. 132-142.

10. Bubennikov A., Mamrykin G. World market of microelectronics // World economy and international relations. - 1995. - No. 6, p. 121-136.

11. Burnaeva E. Northern Europe in the international division of labor // World Economy and International Relations. - 1994. - No. 12, p. 12.

Regional economics: Textbook. manual for universities / T.G. Morozova, M.P. Pobedina, G.B. Polyak et al.; Ed. prof. T.G. Morozova. - M.: Banks and exchanges, UNITY, 1995. - p. 62.

See also there. - With. 62.

Regional economics: Textbook. manual for universities / T.G. Morozova, M.P. Pobedina, G.B. Polyak et al.; Ed. prof. T.G. Morozova. - M.: Banks and exchanges, UNITY, 1995. - p. 62.

Regional economics: Textbook. manual for universities / T.G. Morozova, M.P. Pobedina, G.B. Polyak et al.; Ed. prof. T.G. Morozova. - M.: Banks and exchanges, UNITY, 1995. - p. 62.

The sectoral structure of the world economy should be understood as the composition and correlation of industries in all countries of the world. The structure of the economy varies among groups of countries, because states are unevenly provided with natural and mineral resources.

Sectoral structure of the world economy

In the world economy, there is a group of sectors of the material sphere that produce products - industry, construction, forestry and agriculture, and sectors of the intangible non-productive sphere - science and culture, management and financial services, healthcare and education.

The industry structure should be understood as the relationship between different industries in the economies of individual states and the world.

The countries in the world are very different in their level of development, one group of countries is called developed, they occupy key and leading positions in the world economy, the second group is called developing, they have not yet reached the level of developed countries in their development.

Fig.1 Developed and developing countries of the world.

The ratio of industrial and non-material sectors in groups of countries is different. In countries with developed economy the share of the agricultural sector is from 6 to 10%, the share of industry is 25-30%, the share of the intangible sector and services is from 60% to 80%.

Rice. 2 Industrial sectors

In the structure of the economy of developed countries, there is a process of reducing the share of manufacturing sectors and increasing the share of the intangible sector and services.

In developing countries, up to 55-60% are comprised of mining and agricultural production, primary sectors of economic management, traditional since colonial times.

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The structure of the world economy gives a general picture of the division of the economy into sectors, taking into account the indicators of all countries. The diagram of world economic sectors is dominated by the financial sector (24%), industry (18%), non-banking sector (12%) and small business (11%).

Rice. 3. Sectoral structure of the world economy

Territorial structure of the world economy

To compare the economies of countries, it is important not only the structure of the economy, but also the location of production across the territory. The sectoral and territorial structure of the world economy consists of indicators for all countries of the world. The expression “territorial structure of the economy” (TSH) should be understood as the division of the country’s territory into development regions, economic regions, complexes and centers, industrial hubs and groupings.

The agricultural sector in developed countries consists of large industrial centers and urban agglomerations, transport routes and hubs, technology parks and regions with highly developed agricultural production. In developing countries, the main role is played by the capital, often a large port, and several areas of extraction of export minerals and plantations of export fruits.

What have we learned?

The picture of the sectoral structure of the world economy shows a combination of industries in the production and non-material spheres. The economies of developed countries are dominated by non-material sectors and services. The economies of developing countries are dominated by agricultural production and mining industries. The financial sector and industrial production lead the structure of the world economy.

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The world economy can be considered, on the one hand, as a set of national economies that differ in the level of development, the structure of the national economy, its organization, and on the other hand, as a system of international economic relations that penetrate across the borders of national economies, linking them into a single whole. [Korolchuk, Gurko, p. 9]

The sectoral structure of an economy is understood as the totality of its parts (sectors and sub-sectors), historically formed as a result of the social division of labor. It is characterized by percentage indicators in relation to either the employment of the economically active population or the produced GDP. When studying the sectoral structure of the world economy, it is customary to distinguish its three levels - macro-, meso- and micro levels. Accordingly, they talk about the macrostructure, mesostructure and microstructure of the economy. [Maksokovsky, 1 part, p. 170]

The macrostructure (macro-industry structure) of the world economy reflects its largest and most important internal proportions - between the production and non-production spheres, between industry and agriculture, and some others. It is these proportions that primarily determine the classification of a country as an agricultural, industrial or post-industrial stage of development. At the pre-industrial stage, the agrarian structure of the economy dominated, at the industrial stage - industrial, and the post-industrial stage was characterized by its own post-industrial structure.

The agrarian type of macro-industry structure of the economy is characterized by the predominance of agriculture and related industries. Since the modern world has different stages, in relation to agriculture it is perhaps characterized by the greatest contrast. At one extreme are post-industrial countries, where the share of agriculture in GDP has already dropped to 1-5%, and in the employment of the economically active population - to 3-8%. [Maksakovsky, 1 part, p. 170] At the other pole there are still the least developed countries of Asia and Africa, where the share of agriculture in GDP remains at the level of 2/5 to 3/5. [Maksakovsky, 1 part, p. 170] In terms of employment, it is even greater: average employment in agriculture for both Africa and Asia is almost 60%, and in Nepal, Burkina Faso, Burundi, and Rwanda it exceeds 9/10. [Maksakovsky, 1 part, p. 170]

The industrial type of macro-industrial structure, which is characterized by a large share of industry and construction, until the middle of the 20th century. was typical for all economically developed countries. The industrial structure of the economy continues to be preserved in some countries with transition economy.

The post-industrial type of macro-industrial structure of the economy began to take shape already in the era of scientific and technological revolution. Its most characteristic feature is a change in the relationship between the production (material) and non-production (intangible) spheres in favor of the latter. The non-production sphere brings together a wide range of different types economic activities aimed at meeting the personal needs of the population, the needs of production, as well as the needs of society as a whole. Sometimes this area is divided into services, social services, finance, public administration and defense.

It can be added that if we consider indicators not of GDP, but of employment of the economically active population, then the share of the service sector in most cases will be even greater. For example, in the USA, Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, and Israel it exceeds 70%. [Maksakovsky, 1 part, p. 172]

From all that has been said, it follows that the different stages described above are quite clearly tied to three main types of countries modern world. Economically developed countries lead in terms of the share of the service sector in the economy, developing countries lead in agriculture, and countries with transition economies lead in industry and construction (Table 1.3.1).

In the context of individual countries and regions, global indicators are also of great interest. Based on data on the structure of the economically active population, they are included in table 1.3.1, based on data on GDP structure shown in Figure 1.3.1.

In the western, and in Lately and in the domestic scientific literature, when characterizing the sectoral structure of the economy, its division into three sectors is widely used - primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary sector of the economy includes industries related to the use natural conditions and resources - agriculture and forestry, fishing, extractive industries. The secondary sector covers all branches of manufacturing and construction. And the tertiary sector includes service industries. The growth of industries in this area led to the fact that sometimes they also began to distinguish the quaternary sector, which included newest types information activities.

The mesostructure (meso-industry structure) of the world economy reflects the main proportions that develop within industry, agriculture, and the service sector.

Thus, in the structure of world industry, under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, there is a gradual decrease in the share of extractive industries and an increase in the share of manufacturing industries. The structure of industry is also influenced by the rapid pace of development of industries that primarily ensure scientific and technological progress - mechanical engineering, the chemical industry and the electric power industry.

Even more significant structural changes at the meso level are characteristic of the service sector. They are associated both with different growth rates of demand for different kinds services, as well as with the advent of completely new types of services. The demand for socio-cultural services related to education, healthcare, services for people’s free time, household services, services in the field of transport, communications, credit and financial sphere, etc. is growing quite quickly. The need for a range of business services, which includes marketing and advertising services, security and maintenance services, accounting transactions, insurance, etc. And the consulting business is growing very rapidly: developing and providing clients scientific solutions various economic problems - in the form of information, expertise, consultations or direct participation in management, market research.

The microstructure (micro-industry structure) of material production reflects the shifts occurring in certain types and subtypes of such production, primarily industrial. At the same time, the latest knowledge-intensive types of mechanical engineering and chemical industry are increasingly coming to the fore - such as the production of electronic computer equipment, automation equipment, aerospace, laser technology, equipment for nuclear energy, and the production of microbiological preparations. It is under the influence of shifts in the microstructure that the diversification (fragmentation) of the structure of the economy occurs to the greatest extent. The level of such diversification is highest in the United States. They are followed by Japan, Germany, and other developed countries.

Thus, the sectoral structure of the world economy can be characterized by:

* macro level, where the largest and most important internal proportions are reflected - between the production and non-production spheres, between industry and agriculture and some others.;

* meso level, which reflects the main proportions that develop within industry, agriculture, and the service sector;

* micro level, which reflects the shifts occurring in individual types and subtypes of material production, primarily industrial.

The formation of the world economy is the result of a thousand-year evolution of productive forces. That is why we can distinguish a long stage in the prehistory of the world economy, and then the stages of its emergence (XVI century), formation ( late XIX century) and in the 20th century. stages of its primary development.

As for the sectoral structure of the world economy, it is relatively dynamic and subject to changes associated primarily with the course of scientific and technological progress.

1. Sectoral structure of the world economy.

The sectoral structure of the economy in a broad sense is a set of qualitatively homogeneous groups of economic units, characterized by special production conditions in the system of social division of labor and playing a specific role in the production process.

In world practice, the basis for the formation of structural elements of the economy is the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Types of Economic Activities and the International Standard Classification of Occupations, which are components of the System of National Accounts (SNA). The SNA provides for the use of two types of classifications: by industry and by sector. Grouping by industry provides a characteristic of the sectoral structure of the economy, allows us to establish the contribution of each industry to the creation of GDP, and to trace inter-industry connections and proportions. Grouping by economic sectors, formed depending on the functions performed by business units in the economic process, allows you to analyze processes in the field of distribution and redistribution of income, investment financing.

The world economy is usually divided into sectors: mining, transport, manufacturing, infrastructure and others. Among the manufacturing industries there are: fuel and energy complex (fuel and energy complex), metallurgical, oil industry, etc. The mining industry includes the extraction of coal, oil, gas, etc.

Sectors of the economy: 1. Primary - industries related to the extraction of resources directly from nature, it combines the mining industry, agriculture, forestry, and hydropower. 2. Secondary – includes manufacturing industry with thermal power generation. 3. Tertiary – infrastructure: transport, communications, trade, science, construction, education, healthcare, etc. that is, where people work—the service sector. In addition, they distinguish quaternary - the most qualified industries, service sectors: science, banking, higher education, top-level management, media, and some cultural sectors.

Let's take a closer look current state and prospects for the development of the main industrial complexes of the world economy.

Fuel and energy complex (FEC)

Fuel and energy industries are capital-intensive industries. In industrialized countries, where all sectors of the fuel and energy complex are represented, usually the main capital investments of up to 85% fall on the oil and gas industry and electric power industry (in approximately equal shares) and up to 15% on oil refining and the coal industry. Investments in the oil industry have a significant impact on the investment process in the fuel and energy complex.

In oil and gas industry The main areas of R&D in the long term are as follows:

1) in the field of oil and gas exploration, R&D is aimed at improving three-dimensional seismic exploration methods in remote regions of the world with a complex geological structure;

2) in the field of drilling, R&D is aimed at improving the placement of horizontal wells, the widespread use of which makes it possible to increase the efficiency of development of oil and gas fields. In the oil refining industry, the main efforts will be aimed at improving secondary processes in order to increase the yield of light petroleum products, including high-octane unleaded gasoline and other high-quality products in order to reduce environmental pollution by harmful emissions. At the same time, research will be conducted on the replacement of petroleum products with alternative fuels, mainly in transport.

Business activity in the oil industry is cyclical; this development is due to the fact that decisions to increase investment in the oil industry are made at a time when there is a shortage of oil in the markets, accompanied by rising prices and profits. Typically, during this period, all participants in the oil business, including financial institutions, strive to revive the investment process in this industry, and the return on investment in the form of increased production volumes begins to take effect after about ten years. In the oil markets, there is an excess supply of oil over demand, prices begin to decline, which is also accompanied by a decrease in investment until the excess oil disappears.

In accordance with the cyclical nature of the development of the oil industry, changes in capital investments occurred not only I this industry, but also in the fuel and energy complex in general.

Following the oil and gas industry, large investments commensurate with those in the oil and gas industry will be made in the electricity sector in the coming decade. Gas-fired power plants require less capital investment per unit of input capacity, have faster construction times, and reduce the negative impact of fuel and energy industries on the environment and especially on the possibility of global climate change.

Gas is the most environmentally friendly type of organic fuel; the resource base of gas production for the coming decades does not cause any particular concern.

Investments in the development of the electric power industry are less susceptible to such cyclical changes as in the oil industry.

Metallurgical complex.

The metallurgical complex is a set of industries producing a variety of metals. It consists of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy.

Ferrous metallurgy includes the extraction and beneficiation of iron, manganese and chrome ore, smelting of cast iron and steel, and production of rolled steel.

Iron ore production increased from 1950 to 1980. last century to 900 million tons, then experienced a decline, but then increased to 1 billion tons. Iron ore production decreased in the USA, Western Europe, Russia, Kazakhstan and Ukraine. At the same time, production is growing in easily accessible fields in China, Brazil and Australia. World steel production increased quite rapidly until the mid-1970s. But during the period of energy and raw materials crisis, the development of ferrous metallurgy slowed down sharply. Steel production in the world is practically not growing and is characterized by noticeable instability. This is due to the trend towards a decrease in metal intensity of production in developed countries and the growing replacement of metal with plastics and aluminum. The decreasing role of ferrous metallurgy is explained by a general decrease in the metal intensity of production, a reduction in steel consumption per unit of finished product, and an increase in requirements not so much for the quantity, but for the quality of the metal. The most important trend in the development of the global iron and steel industry is its movement to developing countries. In 1996, China became the world leader in steel production. South Korea is almost equal to Germany in this indicator, and Brazil is ahead of the UK and France. Developing countries produce mainly raw metal. The Russian Federation ranks fourth in steel production; in the USA and Japan, leading corporations are reducing the production of traditional demand for goods and services for a wide variety of purposes.

The ongoing structural restructuring is aimed at increasing the quality parameters of production and manufactured products, strengthening the resource-saving type of reproduction, intensifying national economic processes, and accelerating the development of the latest knowledge-intensive industries.

Structural changes are taking place in the sectoral and reproductive sectors. Structural transformations began to be carried out at the micro level - the level of sub-sectors and types of production - mainly due to qualitative changes within traditional sectors of the economy. At the same time, the leading branch of material production remains industry, and primarily mechanical engineering, where scientific and technical achievements are accumulated. It is here that the most noticeable trend is towards a decrease in the share of raw materials, energy resources, and living labor; the share of the latest knowledge-intensive industries in the industrial structure is rapidly growing.

The trend towards a reduction in the share of the extractive industry continues (with increasing costs for exploration, drilling and production of gas, oil, etc.). At the same time, the latest progressive technological processes are increasingly penetrating into it, microprocessors and microcircuits are being introduced, which have a huge impact on the structure of production and contribute to the massive release of labor from the production process. Integrated production automation and development of unmanned technology are the leading areas of scientific and technological progress.

Mechanical engineering complex.

Mechanical engineering is the main branch of world industry, accounting for about 35% of the value of world industrial output. In developed countries, the products of this industry account for 32-38% of the cost of industrial production, in countries with transition economies - 20-25%, in newly industrialized countries (NICs) - 15-25%. Mechanical engineering is divided into general, transport and electrical engineering.

In recent years, electronics has been growing at a faster pace, general mechanical engineering is growing at a moderate pace, while the share of transport engineering

decreases.

There are four main engineering regions of the world:

1) North America - occupies a leading position in terms of production scale with 30%, stands out for the production of heavy-duty computers, aircraft, rocket and space technology and other types of weapons;

2) the region of Western, Central and Eastern Europe produces about 30% of world mechanical engineering products;

3) the countries of East and Southeast Asia produce about 25% of the world's mechanical engineering products. The production of ships, cars, and consumer electronics continues to move to this region. Japan is concentrating its efforts on knowledge-intensive industries;

4) Russia and other former Soviet republics. The CIS countries belong to the group of countries with a full range of engineering production. The military-industrial sectors have received great development here.

2) new states that arose after the collapse of the USSR, which include: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Armenia, Moldova, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, as well as countries that arose after collapse of Yugoslavia.

This group of countries has been around since the mid-1980s. turned out to be

at the center of unique historical transformations in almost all areas of socio-political and economic life. The essence of these transformations is the replacement of authoritarian political regimes with pluralistic democracy and the transition from a centrally planned socialist economy to market economic conditions.

Developing countries are usually grouped into regions based on their geographic location. Currently they are at at least three different levels of economic development. The most industrially developed developing countries formed the group of newly industrialized countries (NICs). These include Argentina, Brazil, Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Mexico, Singapore, Taiwan, and Turkey.

The intermediate group was formed by countries that lagged significantly behind the NIS both in terms of total volumes production and the production of goods and services per capita. This group, in particular the countries of the Middle East, is characterized by great differentiation of industry structures, social strata of the population and their position in society. About five ten developing countries belong to the group of least developed countries. They have a narrow, even monocultural, economic structure and a high degree of dependence on external sources of financing activities in the socio-economic sphere. This group includes eight countries in Asia, twenty-eight in Africa, and five in Latin America and Oceania.

Agro-industrial complex.

Agro-industrial integration is a new form of enterprise association, different from associations in industry and the service sector.

The technological shift in global agriculture, called agro-industrial integration, began in the 60s and 70s. XX century

The main feature of agro-industrial integration lies in its intersectoral nature, which consists of an organized and commercial association of enterprises from two significantly different sectors of the economy - industry and agriculture.

To a certain extent, agro-industrial integration, including agriculture in the general process of industrial production, overcomes the specific nature of agricultural production (susceptibility to natural and climatic factors, the difficulty of preliminary forecasting the volume of agricultural products). Agro-industrial integration logically and historically leads to the creation of an agro-industrial complex. The agro-industrial complex is a unified system of agricultural, industrial enterprises and industries that has developed in social production, covering the entire agro-industrial chain, welded together by integration ties based on property relations or contractual relations.

There are three areas within the agro-industrial complex:

1) industries supplying

means of production for agriculture and related industries, as well as those providing production and technical services to agriculture;

2) agriculture itself;

3) industries involved in processing and bringing agricultural products to the consumer (procurement, processing, storage, transportation, sales). A number of industries entirely (or almost entirely) serve the needs of the agro-industrial complex (production of agricultural machinery, fertilizers, equipment for livestock breeding and feed production, etc.). Other industries are only partially occupied with meeting the needs of the agro-industrial complex.

The formation of the agro-industrial complex is a new stage in the development of social production, based on the development of the productive forces of agriculture, the industrial revolution in agriculture, which in this sense has, as it were, caught up with industry. The agro-industrial chain includes production, transportation of important agricultural inputs, production of initial agricultural products, storage, transportation, processing and marketing of finished products.

The process of development of agro-industrial integration and the formation of the agro-industrial complex has advanced far in industrialized countries, primarily in the United States. To an immeasurably lesser extent, it is observed in the developing world, where, along with general trends and forms of its manifestation, specific features and forms appear associated with the significant lag in the agro-industrial sphere of the liberated countries and their economic dependence on the West.

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