The constant development of technology every year places increased demands on the economy. This invariably affects the development of the most important sector of the world economy - industry. Today, more than 500 million specialists of various levels of training are employed to ensure its full-fledged operation.

World industrial structure

It is not for nothing that industry is considered one of the leading sectors of the world economy: during the twentieth century, industrial production increased tens of times, and continues to confidently increase its growth rate.

Industrial products are in great demand on the world market, and the developed countries continue to invest significant sums in the development of new industrial technologies and Scientific research.

There are three main groups of industries:

• To the primary sphere include old industries: metallurgical, coal, textile, iron ore and shipbuilding. The growth of these industries is noticeably slowing down.
• To the secondary sphere include such new industries as the production of chemical fibers and plastics, the automotive industry, and aluminum production. The development of these industries determined scientific and technological progress in the twentieth century. They continue to grow and develop quite quickly.
• To the newest industries The tertiary sector includes nanotechnology, microbiological industry, computer technology, microelectronics, robotics, aerospace and nuclear production. IN modern world industry data high technology are the most popular and developing.

Fig.1. The future lies with nanotechnology.

The development scheme for the industrial sector is quite simple and consists in reducing the ratio of old industries towards new ones and, especially, the newest ones.

TOP 4 articleswho are reading along with this

Geography of sectors of the world economy

Changes are constantly taking place in the geography of the industrial world. First of all, they are associated with the peculiarities of the distribution of production spheres between the North and the South. The location of the largest industrial regions, which, as a rule, are located in Europe, East Asia, the CIS, and North America, has a significant influence.

For example, until quite recently, the industrial structure prevailed in such developed regions as Western Europe, the USA and Japan. However, the situation in global industry has changed greatly, and industrial countries today include China and countries that produce and export oil (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Algeria).

It is worth noting that the rich countries of the North occupy a leading position in the production of the latest industrial sectors, while the countries of the South, with rare exceptions, are strong in oil refining, mining, and light industry. The vast majority of various industrial regions are located in the countries of the North, which determine the geography of the world economy.

Fig.2. Oil production and export is the main trump card of developing countries.

Main sectors of the world economy

The global industries include:

• Fuel and energy industry (gas, coal, oil). The main oil exporters are developing countries.

Table of World Oil Reserves and Production

• Electric power industry. The first place is occupied by the production of thermal energy, the second - hydraulic, and the third - nuclear.
• Mining industry. It is the most important supplier of mineral raw materials on the world market. Despite the decline in production rates, it still continues to influence the geography of the world economy and the division of labor.
• Metallurgical industry (ferrous and non-ferrous). Directly depends on iron ore mining and steel smelting. Production growth is noticeably declining.
• Mechanical engineering. It occupies a leading position among other sectors of the world economy. It is in this type of industry, as nowhere else, that the division into all industries into old, new and newest is clearly visible. 90% of all engineering products are produced in developed countries.

Old branches of mechanical engineering have ceased to develop or are in decline (shipbuilding). New industries are still showing slight growth (automotive). The latest developing engineering industries include robotics and electronic engineering.

Fig.3. Shipbuilding is an old branch of mechanical engineering.

• Chemical industry. It is based on the production of polymer materials and petrochemicals.
• Forestry industry. In the North, coniferous wood is mined, and in the South, deciduous wood is mined.
• Textile industry. Includes the production of fabrics from natural and synthetic fibers.

What have we learned?

The main branch of the world economy is industry, which is constantly developing and thereby influences the geography of industrial sectors. Depending on consumer demand and, accordingly, the pace of development, industries are old, new and new. The latter predominate in rich, economically developed countries.

Test on the topic

Evaluation of the report

Average rating: 4.9. Total ratings received: 324.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

ABOUTindustry structure of the world economy

1. General concept sectoral structure

The structure of the economy is a multifaceted concept that shows the relationship between the various elements of the economic system. Typically, social, sectoral, reproductive, regional (territorial) and foreign trade structures are distinguished.

Sectoral structure of the economy in a broad sense, is a set of qualitatively homogeneous groups of economic units characterized by special conditions production in the system of social division of labor and playing a specific role in the process of expanded reproduction.

Sectoral shifts at the macro level, when considered in a historical context, were manifested first in the rapid growth of “primary industries” (agriculture and mining), then “secondary” (industry and construction), and, most recently, “tertiary industries” ( services).

In world practice, the basis for the formation of structural elements of the economy is the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Types of Economic Activities and the International Standard Classification of Occupations, which are components of the System of National Accounts (SNA). The SNA provides for the use of two types of classifications: by industry and by sector. Grouping by industry provides a characteristic of the sectoral structure of the economy, allows us to establish the contribution of each industry to the creation of GNP, and to trace inter-industry connections and proportions. A special place in the SNA is occupied by intersectoral balances, which is due to the wide opportunities they present for analyzing the dynamics and structure of the economy, basic cost and physical proportions, conducting international comparisons, and performing forecast economic calculations. Depending on the purposes of economic analysis, inter-industry balances can include from several tens to several thousand industries. industry structure world industry

The basic sectors for developing inter-industry balances are industry, agriculture, construction, trade, transport and communications, and service sectors. Each industry in turn is divided into so-called enlarged industries, sectors and types of production. Each of the consolidated industries includes homogeneous, but specialized industries in the production of certain types of products.

When assigning an enterprise, types of production and services to a particular sector of the economy, the purpose of the product or services, the type of main raw materials and supplies, and the nature of the technological process are taken into account. In a number of cases, difficulties arise when classifying a specific area of ​​a farm as one or another industry.

Each production is characterized by a certain range of products. Differentiated classification, which is based on the type of product and type of production with subsequent

Their subsequent unification into industries, enlarged industries and sectors of the economy facilitates the continuity of classification in the conditions of the developing international division of labor.

2. Industrystructure of modern industry

Industry - Leading Sector material production, in which the predominant part of GDP and national income is created. In modern conditions, the share of industry in the total GDP of developed countries is about 40%.

Modern industry consists of many independent branches of production, related enterprises and production associations, located in some cases at a considerable distance from each other. The sectoral structure of industry is characterized by the composition of industries, their quantitative relationships, expressing certain production relationships between them. In the process of statistical accounting and analysis, the sectoral structure of industry is usually determined by finding the share of industries in the total volume of production, the number of employees and the value of fixed industrial assets.

The indicator of the volume of manufactured products allows us to more objectively judge not only the ratio of industries, but also their interrelations, the dynamics of the sectoral structure of industry. Determining the sectoral structure of industry based on the number of employees gives a slightly different picture, which does not accurately reflect the actual share of industries in general industrial production: the share of more labor-intensive industries will be overestimated, and the share of industries with high level mechanization and automation will be underestimated. The sectoral structure, calculated using the value of fixed assets, mainly reflects the production and technical level of industrial sectors.

The sectoral structure of industry reflects the level industrial development the country and its economic independence, the degree of technical equipment of the industry and the leading role of this industry in the economy as a whole. The progressiveness of the industrial structure is judged both by the composition and share of the industries included in the industry, and by the extent to which the most progressive industries are represented and developed in a given industry.

The interrelations of industries, the proportions that have developed between them, are determined by the method of production, as well as the cumulative effect on its basis of many other factors that determine changes in the sectoral structure of industry. These factors include:

1. Scientific and technological progress and the degree of implementation of its results in production.

2. The level of social division of labor, the development of specialization and cooperation in production.

3. Growth in the material needs of the population.

4. Social and historical conditions in which industry develops.

5. Natural resources of the country.

Grouping by the nature of the impact on the subject of labor divides the entire industry into extractive and manufacturing industries. The extractive industry includes industries in which the process of extracting raw materials and fuel from the earth's bowels, forests and reservoirs (coal, timber, etc.) is carried out. The manufacturing industry group includes industries involved in the processing of raw materials. Depending on the raw materials, the manufacturing industry is divided into industries that process raw materials of industrial origin (production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, etc.), and industries that process agricultural raw materials (meat, sugar, cotton, etc.).

Modern stage economic development The leading countries of the world are characterized by major shifts in the structure of the economy, which certainly leads to new intersectoral and reproductive proportions. Changes in the existing proportions in the economy occurred in two directions:

firstly, reconstruction and modernization of traditional leading sectors of the economy,

secondly, a change in generations of products produced in the sector of new knowledge-intensive industries.

At the same time, the leading branch of material production remains industry and, above all, mechanical engineering, where scientific and technical achievements are accumulated.

In general, over the past decades in industrialized countries, the general pattern of industry shifts is a noticeable decrease in the share of raw materials industries and Agriculture, in the technical modernization of industry and the rapid growth of service industries. The most radical changes occur at the level of sub-sectors, within which knowledge-intensive industries have the highest dynamics.

3. Prospects for the development of the main industrial complexes of the world economy

Fuel and energy complex (FEC)

The fuel and energy sector belongs to capital-intensive industries. In industrialized countries, where all its industries are represented, usually the main capital investments, ranging up to 85%, are in the oil and gas industry and the electric power industry (in approximately equal shares) and up to 15% in the oil refining and coal industries. Investments in the oil industry have a significant impact on the investment process in the fuel and energy complex as a whole.

In accordance with the cyclical nature of the development of the oil industry, changes in capital investments occur not only in this industry, but also in the fuel and energy complex in general.

Following the oil and gas industry, large investments will be made in the electricity sector in the next decade. Annual capital investments in this industry will be in the range of $100 billion per year (these investments are commensurate with investments in the oil and gas industry).

In the future, until 2015, according to experts, the average annual growth rate of electricity generation in the world will be about 2.7%, however, there are significant differences in the pace of development of the electric power industry in industrialized and developing countries, and in the ratios of the use of various types of fuel for electricity generation . In industrialized countries, the growth rate of electricity generation is projected at about 2%. At the same time, the largest increase in installed capacity will occur at gas-fired power plants (an annual increase of up to 4.9%), and the average annual increase in the capacity of coal-fired power plants will be about 1.3% per year. In developing countries, the basic needs for electricity will apparently be met by increasing the construction of coal-fired thermal power plants. The largest consumer of electricity is the United States: it accounts for 42% of global electricity consumption (!).

Nuclear energy is becoming an increasingly important source of fuel and energy resources. There are currently about 140 nuclear reactors operating in the world. Their share in total electricity production in the world remains at 10-11%. Firms involved in nuclear engineering do not expect an increase in the influx of orders for equipment for new nuclear power plants (NPPs), according to at least, in the next 10 years After the accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986, the influx of orders became extremely small.

However, in general, the dependence of the energy sector of a number of countries around the world on nuclear power plants is very significant. Thus, in 1995, the share of nuclear power plants in total electricity generation was (in%): in Lithuania - 76.4; France - 75.3; Belgium - 55.8; Sweden - 51.1; Slovakia - 49.1; Bulgaria - 45.6; Hungary - 43.7; Slovenia, Switzerland, the Republic of Korea, Spain - an average of 34.0; Japan - 30.7; Germany - 29.3; Great Britain - 25.8; USA - 22.0; Russia - 11.4. The cost of electricity at nuclear power plants is 20% lower than at thermal power plants running on coal, and 2.5 times lower than at power plants running on fuel oil. e. By 2020-2030, the share of electricity generated at nuclear power plants is estimated to be 30%, and this will require a significant increase in uranium production.

Noting the downward trend in the share of world trade commodities, it should be noted that we are not talking about an absolute, but a relative decrease in the export of these goods. Oil occupies the leading position in the group of fuel and raw materials. However, in last years Due to structural changes in the economy, oil consumption decreased. International trade in natural gas has developed rapidly in recent years.

The dependence of industrialized countries on oil imports, including from OPEC member countries, remains high: almost 100% for Japan, 95% for France and Germany, 40% for the United States.

Russia has traditionally played an important role in global exports of fuel and energy products, especially oil and natural gas. Energy exports now provide over 50% of all foreign exchange earnings to the Russian Federation from foreign trade.

Mechanical engineering

In the 90s, the investment process in the machine-building complex of developed countries was characterized by a further increase in capital investments in high-tech industries, an increase in the share of expenses on funds complex automation production processes, a sharp reduction in investment in the expansion of traditional industries.

Automation, to one degree or another, will cover all existing types of production in mechanical engineering. Since the second half of the 90s, the accelerated development of automated assembly began, which means new stage in the creation of computerized integrated production. The number of machine tools in the mechanical engineering industries of industrialized countries will gradually decrease while its production capacity and technical and economic efficiency increase.

By 2015, the US engineering complex will account for about 40-50% of the total annual gross capital investment in the manufacturing industry (44% in 1985). The United States occupies a leading position in the world in terms of the scale of production of mechanical engineering products. The USA accounts for about 45% of the production capacity of mechanical engineering enterprises in developed countries, while the share of Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy is 36%, and Japan -19%.

A factor somewhat restraining the further increase in the share of mechanical engineering in the manufacturing industry of all these countries is the continuing separation from mechanical engineering into the service sector, production infrastructure of such functions as programming and maintenance of electronic computer equipment and computer-aided design and control; design of complex production systems and local communication networks; provision of services in engineering, leasing, personnel training; consulting services and so on.

Among engineering industries The aerospace industry (ARKI), microelectronics and automotive industry are at the center of modern state industrial policy in the countries under consideration.

State regulation of these industries is carried out in two main directions: through stimulating the innovation process and through the implementation of various measures, including protectionist ones, in order to facilitate competition for national firms in the domestic and foreign markets.

Currently, the ARCP and electrical engineering (including radio electronics) industries account for 44% and 28% in the USA, respectively, in Japan - 25% (electrical engineering), in Germany - 47% and 29%, in France - 50% and 43%, in the UK - 45% and 40%, in Italy - 30% (for each industry) of total government spending on R&D in the manufacturing industry.

As an alternative to a narrowly national approach to government policy in the field of mechanical engineering, increased support for intensive cooperation between firms is almost universally considered. This process has already gained momentum - for example, cooperation in microelectronics between the USA and Japan.

The development of the mechanical engineering complex is organically connected with the intensification of research activities. The intensification of R&D is due to the reduction life cycle goods, increased competition, and increasing complexity of scientific projects. Currently, the United States spends more on R&D in mechanical engineering than Japan, Germany and the UK combined. Japan is rapidly increasing its scientific and technical potential. Back in the mid-70s it was estimated at 30% of the American level, but in the mid-90s it already reached 41%.

More than 80% of world trade in machinery and equipment occurs in industrialized countries. The economic expansion of industrialized countries is especially evident in the encouragement from government agencies machine-building monopolies investing their capital in creating subsidiaries and branches in developing countries.

Russia's share in world exports of machinery and equipment is now less than 1%, and in the total volume of Russian exports of machinery and technical products to industrialized countries of the West, the share of machinery and equipment is estimated at only 2-2.5%. Due to known reasons, in the near future, in all likelihood, a significant increase in the share of exports of machinery and equipment in its total volume will not occur

Agro-industrial complex (AIC)

Agro-industrial integration is new form mergers of enterprises, main feature which lies in its intersectoral nature, in the fact that it means an organized and commercial association of enterprises from two significantly different sectors of the economy - industry and agriculture.

The agro-industrial complex consists of three areas:

1. Industries that supply means of production for agriculture and related industries, as well as providing production and technical services to agriculture.

2. Agriculture itself.

3. Industries involved in processing and bringing agricultural products to the consumer (procurement, processing, storage, transportation, sales).

The process of development of agro-industrial integration and the formation of the agro-industrial complex has advanced far in industrialized countries and primarily in the United States. The factor of intensification of agricultural production in recent decades has continued to be decisive in relation to the scale of gross grain production in the group of industrialized countries. Grain farms, like agriculture in general, have become an integral part of the agro-industrial complex, in which direct agricultural production is closely combined with processing, storage and final sale of products, as well as with ensuring farm means of production. The intensive path of development of grain production in the world will continue to prevail, because only this path can lead to mitigation of the crisis in the food supply of the ever-growing population of the planet.

At the same time, in many developing countries archaic forms of agriculture and land use have been preserved, and progressive agrarian reforms have been delayed.

With a significant increase in gross grain production in general in industrialized countries and developing countries, in the last twenty years the disproportion in grain farming has continued to deepen, expressed in a growing and multidirectional gap between production and consumption in each of these groups of countries. At the same time, measures were taken in the United States to limit grain production.

If in the early 80s industrialized countries were net exporters of food, then by the mid-90s their imports began to exceed exports. Developing countries have traditionally been large net exporters of food products.

The largest food exporters are the USA, EU countries, Canada, Australia, Brazil, China; The largest importers are Japan, the USA, EU countries, and Russia. However, in fairness, it should be mentioned that according to the International Service for Agricultural Biotechnology, the area under transgenic crops in the USA is 72%, in Argentina - 17%, in Canada - 10% of the total area occupied by agricultural crops.

The state of the Russian food market over the past 10 years has been determined by the ongoing crisis in agriculture and the food industry and, against this background, an increase in the volume and cost of imports of food products and raw materials for their production (this is especially typical for the European part of the Russian Federation).

Transport complex

Financing the transport complex in industrialized countries is traditionally one of the priority functions of the state, because transport, along with energy and communications, is the most important basis for the normal activities of production and social sphere in the state.

In the long term, in countries with market economy Further development of scientific and technological progress for transport is expected. e. The structure of the communication network will undergo significant changes. The length of inactive and unprofitable railway lines and sections will be reduced. At the same time, it is planned to build a number of new, mainly high-speed, lines. Electrification work will increase railways. The length will increase highways with hard surface. The number of airports will increase, the length of gas and oil pipelines will increase. Hydraulic engineering work is expected on river and sea transport, and reconstruction of ports is expected.

World trade creates large flows of goods between countries, regions, and continents. And it is transport that ensures the movement of goods (cargo) and people (passengers) between two or more countries.

The most versatile and effective means The delivery of large masses of cargo over long distances is rightfully considered sea transport. It provides more than 60% of the volume of international trade. In recent decades, air transport has become a serious competitor to sea transport in intercontinental transportation of valuable goods. Railway, river and road transport

transport is widely used mainly in intracontinental foreign trade, as well as in the transportation of export and import goods across the territory of selling countries and buying countries. Pipeline systems play an important role in the international trade of oil and gas. In addition, air transport has firmly taken a leading position in international passenger traffic.

The Russian transport system is part of the global transport system. Russia has a developed transport network, including 115 thousand km of railways, 115 thousand km of inland waterways, more than 600 thousand km of paved roads, 70 thousand km of main oil and product pipelines, over 140 thousand km of main gas pipelines. Russia's transport network includes over 600 thousand km of air lines and many sea routes of varying lengths.

Brief conclusions

The structure of the economy is a multifaceted concept, since the economy can be structured based on a wide variety of criteria. The purpose of any structuring is to show the relationship between the various elements of the economic system. Typically, social, sectoral, reproductive, regional (territorial) and foreign trade structures are distinguished.

The structure of the world economy in terms of industry can be presented as follows:

- “primary industries”: mining industry and agriculture (agribusiness);

- “secondary industries”: industry and construction;

- “tertiary industries”: the service sector, including transport.

Each of the mentioned basic industries can be further subdivided into enlarged industries, sectors and types of production.

The main industrial complexes of the world economy - fuel and energy complex, mechanical engineering, agro-industrial complex and transport complex - have their own structure and their own development prospects.

Literature

Avdokushin, E.F. International economic relations: Textbook. - M.: 2001.

Babin, E.P. foreign economic policy: Proc. allowance / E.P. Babin, T.M. Isachenko. - M.: ZAO Publishing House “Economy”, 2006.

Gordeev, V.V. World economy and problems of globalization: Textbook / V.V. Gordeev. - M.: Higher. school, 2008.

Gurova, I.P. World economy: textbook. / I.P. Gurova. - M.: Omega-L, 2007.

Kireev, A.P. International Economics. In 2 parts - Part 1. international microeconomics: movement of goods and factors of production. Textbook for universities. / A.P. Kireev. - M.: International. relations, 2008.

Kireev, A.P. International Economics. In 2 parts - Part II. International macroeconomics: open economy and macroeconomic programming. Textbook for universities. - M.: International. Relationships, 2009.

Kolesov, V.P., Kulakov M.V. International Economics: Textbook. - M.: INFRA-M, 2006.

Lomakin, V.K. World economy: a textbook for university students studying in economic specialties and areas / V.K. Lomakin. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2007.

International economic relations: Textbook for universities / V.E. Rybalkin, Yu.A. Shcherbanin, L.V. Baldin et al.; Ed. Prof. V.E. Rybalkina. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2006.

International economic relations: Textbook for universities. / E.F. Zhukov, T.I., Kapaeva and others, edited by prof. E.F. Zhukova. - M.: UNITY_DANA, 2009.

Miklashevskaya, N.A., Kholopov A.V. International Economics: Textbook / Ed. Ed. Doctor of Economics, prof. A.V. Sidorovich. - M.: Publishing House “Delo and Service”, 2008.

World economy: introduction to foreign economic activity: Textbook for universities / M, V, Elova, E.K. Muravyova, S, M, Panferova and others; Ed. A, K, Shurkalina, N, S, Tsypina. - M.: Logos, 2006.

World economy: textbook. manual for universities / Ed. Prof. I.P. Nikolaeva. - M.: UNITY_DANA, 2007.

World Economy: Textbook / Ed. Prof. A.S. Bulatova. - M.: Yurist, 2007.

World Economy: a textbook for university students studying in the specialties “Finance and Credit”, “Accounting, Analysis and Audit”, “World Economy” / ed. Yu.A. Shcherbanina. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2007.

Fomichev, V.I. International trade: Textbook. - M.: INFRA-M, 2008.

Tsypin, I.S., Vesnin, V.R. World economy: textbook./ I.S. Tsypnin, V.R. Vesnin. - M.: 2009.

Posted on Allbest.ru

...

Similar documents

The general concept of the structure of the world economy, functional and territorial production structure. Sectoral structure of modern industry. Fuel and energy, agro-industrial, transport complexes and their place in the world economy.

lecture, added 04/09/2010


State and prospects for the development of the Chinese economy. A brief overview of the reforms of 1978-1980. and 1990–2000s Factors economic growth China. The level of well-being of the Chinese as a socio-economic problem. Sectoral structure of the world economy.

test, added 09/12/2011


Fuel and energy industry of the world: coal, oil, gas, electric power, review of some non-traditional energy sources. Mechanical engineering: industry structure, placement factors. World agriculture, its prospects.

test, added 06/19/2011


Classification of natural energy sources. Analysis of the dynamics of global energy consumption. Problems and prospects for the development of China's energy sector. Ways to increase the competitiveness of the PRC in the field of international trade in fuel and energy resources.

course work, added 10/07/2017


Concept and character traits world economy. Relations between individual elements of the world economy. Sectoral and socio-economic structure of the world economy. Trends in the development of the world economy. Uneven economic development.

test, added 02/22/2010


Participation of the USA and Canada in world trade. The role of transnational corporations in the US economy. The state of development of the mining industry, fuel and energy complex, metallurgy and mechanical engineering in countries, features of agriculture.

abstract, added 12/11/2010


The country’s place in the world economy, factors of economic development. Features of national economic model Germany. Sectoral structure of the economy, state of industry. Forms economic activity country and its foreign economic relations.

abstract, added 10/16/2014


General characteristics of the world economy, its dynamics and sectoral structure. The state as the main subject of the world economy. Government Regulation Analysis foreign economic activity. Center and periphery of a single world economy.

abstract, added 05/23/2014


Study and analysis of the economy of the Turkish Republic as one of the significant economic partners of the Russian Federation. Sectoral structure of the Turkish economy. Foreign trade relations with other countries of the world. Strengths and weaknesses of the country's economy.

abstract, added 04/19/2015


Study of the structure of the Canadian economy, features of the relationship between its individual components, analysis of development dynamics and assessment of future prospects. Achievements in agriculture, industry, and high technology. Advantages and disadvantages.

The world economy is global economy, which includes the cost of all goods and services provided. Usually the latter is measured in US dollars for ease of comparison of national indicators. Concepts such as international and world economy often used as synonymous terms. However, in the specialized literature it is customary to separate them. International economy as a term is used in contrast to national economy, while the world economy represents the totality of production of all countries.

Characteristic

It is customary to evaluate the world economic economy in money, even in cases where this is difficult to do. For example, drugs and other goods sold on the black market are often not counted. The world economic system is characterized by the following features:

• Strengthening the interconnectedness of states and deepening transnationalization.
• Formation of relatively closed trade and economic regional blocs and integration groupings.
• World economic countries are increasingly liberalizing their policies and opening up their markets.
• The influence of the cyclical development of economies on the entire system.
• The dominance of the intellectual and information factor in national and global development.
• Increasing income gaps within countries and in the international community.

Brief information

• Population – 7.095 trillion.
• Gross domestic product: nominal – $77.609 trillion. USA - at purchasing power parity - 106,998.
• GDP growth – 3.4%.
• Gross domestic product per capita: nominal – $10,857. USA - at parity purchasing power – 15 073.
• The number of dollar millionaires is 0.15%.
• People who earn less than $2 a day – 3.25 billion.
• The unemployment rate is 5.4%.

Prerequisites for the occurrence

The world economy began to take shape a long time ago, but was finally formed only at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Huge contribution great geographical discoveries, the emergence of modern Vehicle and deepening market relations. The Peace of Westphalia, with the recognition of the sovereignty of states, marked the beginning of the existence of the world as a system. At this time, exploration and capture of new lands is completed. The sectors of the world economy were much less diverse then than they are now. The structure was also different. Agriculture dominated, and industry was dominated by such branches of the world economy as coal mining, ferrous metallurgy, and simple mechanical engineering. In those distant times, transnational companies were few in number, international organizations and integration associations practically did not exist. However, the world was in many ways much more liberal than it is now. It existed on a political and economic basis.

Structure of the world economy

In scientific literature and in everyday life, concepts such as “world economy” and “international economy” are increasingly used, but there is still no common understanding of their essence. This is due to the fact that they are characterized by a multiplicity of elements included in them, multi-level and hierarchical nature. The structure of the world economy includes the following components:

1. Territory.
2. Natural resource potential.
3. Capital (the accumulated stock of funds in productive, monetary and commodity form, necessary for the creation of commodity goods).
4. Labor resources and workforce.
5. Infrastructure.
6. Technologies (scientific methods of achieving practical goals, including entrepreneurial abilities).

Sectoral and functional dimension

The role of the world economy in the functioning of individual national economies is increasing more and more. This is associated with increased interest in its study. It is customary to distinguish the sectoral, functional and territorial structure of the world economy. The first characterizes the relationship between various divisions of the economy. There are several separate areas. Primary industries include mining and agriculture. Secondary – manufacturing. The tertiary sector includes transport, communications and services. Quaternary – management, education, science and culture. They are all closely interconnected. However, the trend is a gradual decrease in the importance of the primary and secondary spheres and an increase in the tertiary and quaternary spheres.

The functional structure of the world economy reflects the international aspect of the division of labor. Each state plays its role, specializing in one or another production. However, the geography of the world economy shows that the “lower floors” (mining metal ores, growing crops) are occupied by developing countries. And they are always trying to win a higher place.

Geography of the world economy

The territorial structure reflects the relationship in the nature of the placement of states in the “Center - Periphery” system, as well as by areas of specialization. For all sections it is expressed in natural and monetary terms. Using these indicators, we can characterize the main types of proportions:

• Renewable. They represent the most important ratio in the productive forces of society and significantly depend on the domestic and foreign policies of the country.
• Intersectoral. Reflect the division social production to large divisions (agriculture, industry, services). Within them, industries are distinguished.
• Territorial. Reflect the relationship between the spatial structures of the economy. It allows us to consider the location of productive forces, the distribution of centers of economic gravity and activity.
• Functional. In the global aspect, the existence of such an aspect is manifested in the fact that the “lower floors” are concentrated in developing countries. The development of the world economy is the story of the struggle for a “higher” place.
• In foreign economic relations. They characterize the import and export of products (between countries and regions), reflecting the openness of national economies and their dependence on imports.

Main areas

All countries of the world are divided into three large groups in accordance with their socio-economic development. The first includes states that are members of the OECD. The second includes countries that were formed after the collapse of the USSR. They are called states with transition economy. Developing countries, in turn, include four subtypes: newly industrialized, “rich islands,” oil exporters, and the weakest. The criteria for classifying states according to spheres of the world economy are the nature of their economy (market or transition) and socio-economic level. The indicators of the latter are:

• The volume of gross domestic product and national income per capita.
• Total number population and percentage of able-bodied people.
• Sectoral structure of gross domestic product.
• Level of consumption of material goods.
• Development of social and industrial infrastructure.
• Level of education and culture of the population.
• Social differentiation and social protection of citizens.

Laws, patterns and principles of development

The modern world economy is a dialectical struggle between unity and opposites. One of the main contradictions in the development of human society is the difference in interests. On the one hand, we have the social nature of production. On the other hand, a private form of appropriation of its results. In addition, the formation of the world economy occurs in a constant struggle between countries for “storeys”. Scientific and technological progress not only does not reduce the severity of this contradiction, but, on the contrary, strengthens it. Therefore, the gap between levels of socio-economic development is only growing. The functioning of the world economy is influenced by a number of laws: cost, international competition, uneven growth, internationalization of production.

The main principles are the following:

• Saving socially useful costs (according to A. Weber).
• Possibility of extracting maximum profit (according to A. Lesh).
• Ecological principle of rational use and protection of the environment.
• Accounting for the international geographical division of labor.
• Maintaining ecological balance.
• Rationality of production location.
• Limitation of centralism.

Scorecard

The level of development of the world economy, the proportions of its sectoral, functional and territorial structure can be expressed in physical and monetary terms. Most important indicators since 1950, gross domestic and national product. GDP is the total value of goods and services produced in a year in a particular country or region. When calculating this indicator, the nationality of the subjects is not important. GNP is the total value of goods and services produced during the year by legal and individuals, registered in the state. When calculating this indicator, nationality is important, and the territorial location of the subjects is not taken into account. If there are many foreign enterprises and workers in the country, then the GDP will be greater than the GNP.

An important indicator of the functioning and levels of development of the world economy is the structure of gross domestic product and employment. It gives an idea of ​​the levels of labor productivity in economic sectors in various regions and in the world as a whole. Thus, a group of the most developed countries is distinguished. Based on the share of employment in agriculture, all countries are divided into four categories.

Stages of economic growth

Human society has gone through several stages in its development. According to Marxist dialectics, these are historical social formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. Each of them corresponds to a certain level of development of productive forces and social relations. There is also a civilizational approach. According to him, individual elements of the world economy began to take shape back in the days of the Roman Empire. It received significant impetus during the era of great geographical discoveries. There are three stages of development of the world economy. The pre-industrial stage lasted more than three thousand years. At this time, manual labor dominated. The vast majority of the population was employed in agriculture. The standard of living of most ordinary people in this period is extremely low. Wealth was determined by the amount of land and livestock. A person's place in society was determined by the class to which he belonged from birth.

The industrial stage of development began about 300 years ago. It took place in four stages:

• Formation of simple and labor-intensive industries.
• Formation of basic spheres of production.
• Comprehensive electrification and mechanization of the economy.
• Widespread automation of the economy.

It is believed that the post-industrial stage begins after humanity or an individual state reaches such a level of development when less than 15% of the population is employed in material production. The USA, Germany and Japan have come close to this stage. The majority of their population is employed in the service sector. However, many researchers note that so far no country in the world has achieved the indicators of a post-industrial society. In their opinion, in the case of the United States, we are still talking about the final stage of the previous stage.

Global problems

In the process of functioning, the national economies of individual countries have to face many problems of an exogenous and endogenous nature. The development of the world economy largely depends on their effective resolution. Global problems are interconnected issues on a planetary scale that threaten humanity with serious regression or death. They require an urgent and urgent solution through the joint efforts of the entire world community. Among them are the following:

1. The problem of overcoming poverty and backwardness. It is typical for developing countries. As you know, 2/3 of the entire world population live in them. Therefore, it is often called the problem of overcoming the backwardness of developing countries. Today, not only has it not been resolved, but it has also become more acutely felt, despite the efforts of the IMF, IBRD and other regional financial and credit institutions.
2. The problem of peace and demilitarization. In the last century, with the invention of nuclear weapons, humanity for the first time faced a direct threat of annihilation. Today, the issue of local conflicts, war refugees and terrorism is becoming increasingly acute.
3. Food and demographic problem. This issue is most acute in developing countries, where part of the population does not even have access to clean drinking water.
4. Problem natural resources. The introduction of alternative energy sources is coming to the fore.
5. Ecological problem. As a result of irrational environmental management, it can become a threat to human health and slow down the further development of the global economy.

Sustainable Development Strategy

It is believed that the stages of the world economy change in accordance with the requirements of the time. Progress directly depends on this. Sustainable development involves economic growth that does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Central to this issue is the consideration of long-term environmental impacts. In addition, it is important to ensure stability and reduce the negative impact of cyclicality business activity, because due to globalization, problems in one country necessarily lead to aggravation of the situation in others.

The modern world economy is a complex organism, the functioning of which depends on a number of factors. And the increasing interdependence of national economies leads to the fact that problems in one sector or country immediately affect all other participants in the division of labor.

The sectoral structure of the world economy should be understood as the composition and correlation of industries in all countries of the world. The structure of the economy varies among groups of countries, because states are unevenly provided with natural and mineral resources.

Sectoral structure of the world economy

In the world economy, there is a group of sectors of the material sphere that produce products - industry, construction, forestry and agriculture, and sectors of the intangible non-productive sphere - science and culture, management and financial services, healthcare and education.

The industry structure should be understood as the relationship between different industries in the economies of individual states and the world.

The countries in the world are very different in their level of development, one group of countries is called developed, they occupy key and leading positions in the world economy, the second group is called developing, they have not yet reached the level of developed countries in their development.

Fig.1 Developed and developing countries of the world.

The ratio of industrial and non-material sectors in groups of countries is different. In countries with developed economies, the share of the agricultural sector is from 6 to 10%, the share of industry is 25-30%, the share immaterial sphere and services ranges from 60% to 80%.

Rice. 2 Industrial sectors

In the structure of the economy of developed countries, there is a process of reducing the share of manufacturing sectors and increasing the share of the intangible sector and services.

In developing countries, up to 55-60% are comprised of mining and agricultural production, primary sectors of economic management, traditional since colonial times.

TOP 2 articleswho are reading along with this

The structure of the world economy gives a general picture of the division of the economy into sectors, taking into account the indicators of all countries. The diagram of world economic sectors is dominated by the financial sector (24%), industry (18%), non-banking sector (12%) and small business (11%).

Rice. 3. Sectoral structure of the world economy

Territorial structure of the world economy

To compare the economies of countries, it is important not only the structure of the economy, but also the location of production across the territory. Industry and territorial structure The world economy consists of indicators for all countries of the world. The expression “territorial structure of the economy” (TSH) should be understood as the division of the country’s territory into development regions, economic regions, complexes and centers, industrial hubs and groupings.

The agricultural sector in developed countries consists of large industrial centers and urban agglomerations, transport routes and hubs, technology parks and regions with highly developed agricultural production. In developing countries, the main role is played by the capital, often a large port, and several areas of extraction of export minerals and plantations of export fruits.

What have we learned?

The picture of the sectoral structure of the world economy shows a combination of industries in the production and non-material spheres. The economies of developed countries are dominated by non-material sectors and services. The economies of developing countries are dominated by agricultural production and mining industries. The financial sector and industrial production lead the structure of the world economy.

Test on the topic

Evaluation of the report

Average rating: 4.8. Total ratings received: 161.

World economy and its sectoral structure. International economic integration

Studying the contents of the paragraph provides the opportunity to:

Ø deepen knowledge about the world economy and its sectoral structure

Ø learn international division labor and its forms;

Ø understand the meaning economic ties between countries and establish their forms;

The concept of the world economy. World economy - this is a historically established set of national economies of all countries of the world, interconnected by global economic relations in the form of foreign trade, export of capital, migration work force, international economic organizations and etc.

The world economy is complex economic system. Most often, the internal structure of the world economy is divided into components that reflect the nature of production processes (industry). The following sectors are distinguished: agriculture, industry, transport and communications, and the service sector.

The structure of the world economy consists of spheres and types of economic activity and can be presented in the following form:

To compare the sectoral structure of the economy of individual countries of the world, the level of their economic development, we use the division of all economic sectors into four sectors. The primary sector includes mining, agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing. Its share in the world as a whole accounts for 5% world GDP, and in highly developed countries about 2%. Secondary, consisting of all branches of the processing industry, ranging from energy, metallurgy, engineering and ending with the food industries. Its share in the world economy is 31%, and in highly developed countries 32%. The tertiary sector includes transport, communications, and services. Its share in the world as a whole accounts for 63% of GDP, and in highly developed countries – 66%. Quaternary, including newest types information activities– collection, processing and use of information in all areas of activity.

The structure of the world economy is characterized by data on production gross domestic product by areas of production and the number of people employed in these areas. (Which sectors of the economy belong to the production sector? Which sectors belong to the non-productive sector?)

Main area The modern world economy is the sphere of production of services, where 1/3 of the economically active population is employed and 2/3 of world GDP is produced. In terms of the number of employed workers, it is second only to agriculture. The existing global relationships between the sphere of material production and the service sector vary greatly between individual countries. According to the structure of gross domestic product, all countries of the world can be divided into three groups, depending on the predominance of one or another sphere of economic activity in them. Countries where agriculture predominates in the economic structure are called agricultural. In countries where industry predominates, they are called industrial. Among them, “newly industrialized countries” occupy a special place. These are developing countries that are experiencing a dramatic expansion in the volume and geography of manufacturing exports.

In developed countries service production sector accounts for up to 75% of GDP. Countries with similar economies are usually called post-industrial.

International division of labor. The natural division of labor existed at the dawn of the development of human civilization. As the productive forces developed and commodity production developed, a social division of labor arose. This concept includes the division in society of social functions performed by groups of people and the allocation in connection with this various fields societies (industry, agriculture, science, army, etc.), which in turn are divided into smaller sectors. An integral part of the social division of labor is the geographical division of labor. The highest form of geographical division of labor - international division of labor, those. specialization of individual countries in the production of specific products and services, and their subsequent exchange. World trade stimulates the development of specialization and improvement in the quality of goods. This is how industries of international specialization arise: aerospace, electrical engineering, electronics, automotive, food, etc. In deepening the international division of labor, a significant role belongs to foreign investment.

The international division of labor is the basis of economic relations between states. System foreign economic relations which is based on the international division of labor is called international economic relations. International economic relations include the diverse participation of countries in the exchange of material and spiritual values. The main forms of international economic relations are: international trade, international financial and monetary relations.

In the era of scientific and technological revolution, international scientific and technical cooperation has sharply expanded, which includes trade in scientific and technical knowledge, scientific research and development. In the practice of trade in scientific and technical knowledge, the following main forms have developed: licensed trade and “know-how”. A license is the right to use any registered invention (in the form of a patent). Most patents are registered in the USA, which are also the main sellers of licenses on the world market. The US share in the export of licenses reaches 2/3 of world trade in some years. The main buyers of licenses are Japan and Germany. Trade in “know-how” makes it possible to obtain not only technology, but also its technical support and personnel training. The global economy is developing international market labor. It is associated with the movement of people from one country to another, mainly in search of work. The leading exporters of labor in the world are the countries of East, Southeast and South Asia (India, China, Pakistan, etc.), Mexico and North African countries (Algeria, Egypt), Turkey. Most of these migrants are sent to Western European countries and the United States, where they are predominantly engaged in low-skilled labor. In the last two decades, the emigration of scientific and creative intelligentsia has increased.

International economic integration. International economic relations are developing in conditions of ever closer interaction between countries of the world. The close economic relationship between states is called economic integration. Economic integration allows for the most efficient use of the natural and socio-economic resources of individual countries. Integration is especially beneficial for small developed states that have limited resources and highly specialized production.

Integration associations. There are five main forms of integration associations: Free Economic Zones, Free Trade Zone, Customs Union, Common Market and Economic Union.

Free Economic Zones (FEZ) successfully operate in many countries around the world. Free Economic Zones are the first form of economic integration. The creation of a SEZ is aimed at enhancing and liberalizing foreign economic activity and creating joint ventures. A SEZ is an independent territorial-geographical enclave with varying degrees of isolation from the economic space of a given country. It involves the abolition of tariff and non-tariff barriers in mutual trade between interested countries. In most cases, the conditions of a free trade zone apply to all goods except agricultural products. In a free trade zone, customs controls are maintained at the borders of each country. It must prevent the entry of goods from third countries.

The SEZ economy has a high degree of openness to the outside world, and customs, tax, investment regimes are favorable for domestic and foreign investment. SEZs operate both in developed countries (USA, UK, Japan, Germany, etc.) and in countries with transition and developing economies (China, Russia, Guatemala, Sri Lanka, etc.).

The most important role in shaping the structure of these zones belongs to foreign direct investment. Textile, clothing, electronics and some other industries that provide export products predominate here. SEZs contribute to the expansion of exports of manufacturing products. The most a large number of such zones in Asia, especially in newly industrialized countries, and in China. The second place in terms of their number belongs to Latin America. SEZs have been created and are successfully operating in the Republic of Belarus.

Free Trade Zones- involves the abolition of tariff and non-tariff barriers in mutual trade between interested countries. In most cases, the conditions characteristic of a free trade zone apply to all goods except agricultural products. In a free trade zone, customs controls are maintained at the borders of each country. It must prevent the entry of goods from third countries. The free trade area is a prerequisite for the transition to the next form of economic integration, the customs union. Among the free trade zones, the most famous are North American (NAFTA), ASEAN (nine countries of Southeast Asia), etc.

Customs Union– a form of economic integration within which customs restrictions are eliminated at the stage of creating a free trade zone. Countries included in the customs union establish uniform trade barriers in relation to third countries. Customs restrictions on the internal borders of countries are being lifted. The countries of the customs union have a corresponding body that coordinates the implementation of a unified and coordinated foreign trade policy.

Common Market received its name due to the initial tasks of creating a single market for goods, capital and labor. In this case, countries join their efforts already at the production stage, and not only during the period of exchange of manufactured products. Among the common markets we can highlight South American (“MERCASUR”). In 1989, at the initiative of Australia, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) organization was organized. It includes 22 countries in Asia, America and Oceania. The purpose of the formation of this organization is to create a single economic space through liberalization of trade, investment regime, and development of economic cooperation.

Economic Union represents the most mature form of integration. Compared to the common market, the economic union is characterized by greater unity. It is characterized by the development of a single economic policy, single currency, the creation of national economic bodies, the maximum simplification of economic and political borders. There is only one economic union in the world so far - the European Union.

The general bodies of the EU are: the European Council, the European Parliament, the Council of the EU, the European Commission - supranational executive agency(European government). He is the one responsible for implementation decisions taken within the EU. The EU headquarters is located in Brussels. The European Parliament sits in Strasbourg. The total population of the EU is about 500 million people.

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was formed. The CIS countries cooperate in the political, economic, environmental, and humanitarian fields. The headquarters of the CIS is located in Minsk.

The modern process of international economic integration is characterized by education transnational corporations (TNCs). This accelerates the development of the world economy. TNCs have a high degree of internal organization, concentrations of capital, have a modern scientific and technical base and influence the volume, structure and direction of international trade flows and services.

TNCs are corporations that have an annual turnover of at least 100 million dollars and branches in more than 6 countries. They are characterized by the sale of goods both within the country and abroad. TNCs now control the development of the global market for goods and services. TNCs now control the development of the global market for goods and services. The largest TNCs are found in countries such as the USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain, etc. These corporations are the creators of effective regulation of markets and competition at the global level.

Among the world's leading TNCs are Microsoft, which deals with software, General Electric, which specializes in electronics, ExxonMobil, which specializes in oil and gas production and refining, Walmart (retail), and Pfizer ( pharmaceuticals), Citigroup (finance), etc. Of the 10 leading TNCs in the world, 8 are located in the USA and 2 in the UK (Royal Dutch Shell and British Petroleum), specializing in the production and refining of oil and gas.

In the last decade, joint ventures have begun to emerge in the global economy. Joint ventures are organizations in which foreign partners participate. The main goal of creating joint ventures is to increase the volume of exports of goods and services and improve the efficiency of export-import operations. The creation of joint ventures also allows us to attract new and cutting-edge technologies to the country. If previously joint ventures were mainly engaged in trading activities, now more and more of them are beginning to organize the production of goods.

Questions and tasks:

1. What was one of the main prerequisites for the emergence of the world economy?
2. *What economic benefits can participation in MRI bring to the country?
3. What is the basis of international economic relations?
4. What is the essence of economic integration? What integration associations exist?
5. What is the difference common market and economic union?

§ 17. Influence scientific and technological progress on the world economy

Studying the contents of the paragraph provides opportunity:

Ø to master the features of economic development using the achievements of scientific and technological progress.

Scientific and technical progress. The concepts of scientific and technological progress (STP) and scientific and technological revolution (STR) are not synonymous. Scientific and technological progress is a broader concept, and scientific and technological progress is an integral part of it. Scientific and technological progress is understood as a continuous process of development, accumulation, implementation and use of new knowledge and innovations (technical, technological, economic, resource, etc.), which stimulate a qualitative transformation of both the production of goods and the service sector. The introduction of scientific and technical progress achievements into the economy makes it possible to increase the socio-economic efficiency of the economy, ensure the satisfaction of more and more new needs of society, and maintain the state of the natural environment at the proper level. There are usually two components of scientific and technological progress. Firstly, it is the production of knowledge and innovation in the innovation sector. The growth of the potential of knowledge as a factor of production is reflected in income from the sale of patents, licenses and technological experience. New production methods make it possible to increase labor productivity. Secondly, this is the use of innovations in the economy. Once innovations have been developed in the innovation sector, they must be implemented. Their implementation occurs through the renewal of fixed production assets of the manufacturing sector. This means that outdated technological equipment is replaced with new ones.

Most scientists distinguish two periods of development of scientific and technological progress. The first period (1770-1920) is associated with the transition from manual labor to machine production. The main symbol of the beginning of scientific and technical progress can be considered the invention of the steam engine by D. Watt, and then, based on it, a steam locomotive, a steamship, a steam hammer, etc. At this stage, the dissemination of technological and technical innovations was carried out extensively - to new industries and economic regions.

The second period (from 1920 to the present) is characterized by the development of mass production, which also led to mass consumption. This stage, in contrast to the first, is characterized by a new ratio of production factors at a qualitatively different technological level (widespread use of electricity, computer technology, etc.). At the same time, information begins to occupy a priority place among the factors of production.

In addition to new equipment and technology, a necessary condition for the development of scientific and technical progress is the transformation of the activities of the person himself, the nature of his work. It places high demands on the educational and qualification level of labor resources. Significant differences between more developed and less developed countries in the structure of employment in the share of engineering and technical personnel and skilled workers reflect differences in the levels of their socio-economic development. Unskilled labor is almost never used in most industries in developed countries, and the share of intellectual labor is constantly growing. The capital that is materialized in knowledge, skills, and physical health of the population of developed countries is 25 times greater per capita than in developing countries. The high quality of labor resources is the national wealth of countries, which has been accumulated over many years by investing in the education and training systems. Knowledge and highly qualified specialists make science a direct productive force.

NTP had a great influence on the sectoral structure of the economy. The sectoral structure of an economy is usually understood as the relationship between its parts, which were formed as a result of the social division of labor. Considering the sectoral structure of the economy of the countries of the world, three types of established economies can be distinguished. The agricultural type includes countries in which the share of agriculture in GDP exceeds 40%. This type of economy is represented mainly by African and Latin American countries. The industrial type includes countries in which the share of industry in GDP structure ranges from 40% to 60%. These are separate countries former USSR, row Asian countries. The post-industrial type of countries includes countries in which the share of the service sector is over 2/3 of GDP. These are most European countries, USA, Japan, Singapore, etc.

Under the influence of scientific and technical progress, the role of individual factors in the location of production also changes. If previously the location of production was greatly influenced by factors such as the availability of natural resources, transport factors, consumer factors, etc., then in modern location the leading role belongs to scientific potential, the information factor, and the qualifications of labor resources.

Scientific and technological revolution. Scientific and technological progress (STP) is perceived as constant improvement and improvement of tools and production methods. Unlike NTP, scientific and technological revolution (STR) is a landmark qualitative leap in the development of science and technology, radically transforming the productive forces of society and society itself. (What revolutionary changes do you know in industries and agriculture?)

The modern period of scientific and technological revolution is characterized by four main features: 1) rapid, accelerated development of science, a sharp reduction in the time between a scientific discovery and its implementation in production. For example, the incubation period for photography is 112 years, but for a solar cell it is only 2 years. 2) universality, i.e. Scientific and technological revolution has covered all sectors and spheres of human activity in all countries of the world; 3) increasing requirements for the level of qualifications of performers; 4) the military-applied orientation of scientific and technological revolution as a consequence of its origins during the Second World War.

Scientific and technological revolution is a complex system that contains four components:

The science. Scientific research expenditures have become an important indicator of the country's development. An important feature of modern scientific and technological progress is the ever-increasing costs of research and development. Expenditures on science or R&D (research and development are constantly growing. In the mid-1990s, absolute expenditures on R&D amounted to about $500 billion, with developed countries (except the CIS) accounting for up to 95% of all such costs in the world. The share of R&D expenditures in developed countries is 2.3–3% of GDP, in developing countries – 0.3–0.5%. About the place of science in modern society judged by two indicators: 1) employment and 2) costs. 8.2 million people are employed in research activities in the world, including 4.7 million in member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 1.9 million in developing countries, and countries with economies in transition – 1.6 million people. In the USA, the number of scientists and engineers is 1 million people, in Japan - 800 thousand, in Germany - 250 thousand. The number of scientists and engineers per 1000 inhabitants in Japan is 6.4, in the USA - 3.8, in Western Europe - 2.3, in developing countries there are only 0.1–0.3 people. Success in introducing scientific and technological advances into production is directly related to a well-functioning education system and the amount of expenditure on it.

Engineering and technology, that embody scientific knowledge and are open. With the help of technology, new means of production are created, and with the help of technology, new methods of processing raw materials and materials are created. This is most clearly manifested in electronics. Therefore, the latest wave of scientific and technological revolution is called the “microelectronic revolution.” Depending on the goals and functions, equipment and technology are classified into labor-saving (creation of highly productive intellectual technologies) and resource-(material)-saving, environmental, and information-saving.

Manufacturing plants Electronic computers and robots are widely used, and new energy sources (nuclear, thermonuclear) are used. In this regard, the complexity of labor and its efficiency sharply increases, and the demand for highly qualified labor increases.

Robots are used in the most labor-intensive and dangerous industries. The joint use of electronic computers (computers) and robots using the most modern machine tools and aggregate equipment (flexible production systems, GPS) increases labor productivity tenfold. For example, computers that perform billions of operations per second make it possible to switch to remote control of the most complex units, devices, machines on land, water, in space, and then it will become possible to do this underground and underwater. Symbol technical revolution XVIII–XIX centuries there was a steam engine, the symbol of modern scientific and technological revolution is the computer.

Production. This direction is associated with the restructuring of the energy sector, the production of new structural materials, the microbiological and aerospace industries. Scientific and technological revolutions influence the growth rate and level of development, industry structure and location of production. The achievements of scientific and technological revolution were used to the greatest extent by highly developed countries of the West. In these countries there has been a process of transferring production to new technology and technology, saving energy and raw materials. Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, a new structure is being formed, which is called post-industrial (information). The post-industrial structure is characterized by an increase in the share of the non-productive sector (service sector, science, education, culture). Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, changes also occurred in the structure of material production, where the leading positions were taken by manufacturing industries and, first of all, mechanical engineering, the chemical industry and the electric power industry. At the same time, the role of the extractive industry decreased. Scientific and technological revolution is associated with the territorial concentration of the economy and population, which gives an economic effect. However, at the same time there is a process of territorial decentralization through the creation of small and medium-sized enterprises, mini-factories, mini-hydroelectric power stations, etc.

Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, significant changes are occurring both in the location of production and in its structure (table).

Table. Employment structure in countries with different levels of economic development (2003, in%)

Control, those. purposeful, expedient actions aimed at harmonizing people's opinions and the compatibility of their activities.

In developed countries, scientific and technological progress is manifested in the growth of scientific and technical equipment and the intensification of production based on the use of genetic engineering, biotechnology, robotics and electronics. Now developed countries are carrying out a “biotechnological revolution” in agriculture. Biotechnology is one of the most important areas of scientific and technological revolution. Biotechnology makes it possible to develop plant varieties with new genetic properties, highly productive breeds of farm animals, create new generation medicines, etc., and makes it possible to produce liquid fuel from agricultural waste and cellulose-containing materials.

If previously the main indicator of scientific and technological progress in agriculture was the use of tractors, then modern stage- systems of agricultural machines, new technological processes, mineral fertilizers and pesticides.

In the 60s of the twentieth century, the concepts of “green” and biotechnological “revolution” became widespread. "Green Revolution" - this is the transformation of agriculture based on modern agricultural technology, which is one of the forms of manifestation of scientific and technical progress. It includes three main components: 1) growing new varieties of crops, primarily grains; 2) expansion of irrigated lands; 3) wider use of modern technology and fertilizers.

As a result of the Green Revolution, grain yields increased two to three times. Some developing countries have begun to meet their grain needs through their own production. However, the “green revolution” did not live up to the hopes placed on it. Firstly, because it has a pronounced focal nature and is widespread in Mexico and a number of countries in South and Southeast Asia. Secondly, it affected only large farms and companies, almost without changing the nature of production in the traditional, small-scale consumer sector.

Biotechnology is understood as a set of methods and techniques for the use of living organisms, biological products and biotechnical systems in the production sector. Its introduction into production allows: firstly, to increase the energy resources of humanity (obtaining energy from biomass in both gaseous and liquid states). For example, there are millions of biogas generators in operation in India and China. Secondly, to develop mineral deposits using biotechnological methods (underground leaching of minerals, increasing the recovery of oil reservoirs using microbes). Thirdly, increasing agricultural productivity through the introduction of genetic engineering methods into crop and livestock production and the protection of cultivated plants from pests and domestic animals from diseases. Fourthly, obtaining new drugs for the needs of medicine and veterinary medicine. Fifthly, protection of the natural environment using biotechnical methods (bacterial wastewater treatment, recycling of industrial and municipal waste). In the modern world, the bioindustry is developing especially rapidly in the USA, Japan, and EU countries. In the United States alone, there are more than 1,200 biotechnology companies that produce pharmaceutical products. New methods of mineral exploration, the introduction of modern mining equipment, new technologies and the integrated use of mineral raw materials increase the efficiency of its extraction and use.

The influence of scientific and technical progress on the world economy. Under the influence of scientific and technical progress, the following changes are occurring in the modern world economy. Firstly, the growth of informatization and intellectualization of labor. The creation of new generation computers has made it possible to significantly increase their memory capacity and the speed of operations performed by millions of times. This gradually leads to the fact that every individual, every enterprise and organization has the opportunity to receive any necessary information and knowledge for their life at any time. Secondly, the requirements for the qualifications and general educational level of personnel employed in the economy are increasing. Today, the average period for updating equipment and technology has decreased to 4-5 years, and in some industries to 2-3 years. The duration of training of qualified workers has increased to 12-14 years. That is why the leading post-industrial countries of the world allocate huge amounts of money for education.

Thirdly, bringing up states and the level of development of equipment and technologies in different countries to the advanced level. In the world, all countries for the development of technological innovations are divided into three groups. The first group includes approximately 18 countries of the world (USA, Japan, Sweden, France, Germany, Great Britain, Finland, etc.), where 15% of the world's population lives, but where almost all the latest know-how is created. The second group of countries, home to approximately 50% of the world's population, are able to introduce these technologies into their production and consumption systems (Spain, Italy, Brazil, China, India, Czech Republic, etc.). The third group of countries, where approximately 1/3 of the world's population lives, are technologically backward because they do not create their own latest technologies and do not introduce foreign ones.

Transferring advanced forms and methods of organizing production to other countries. This happens through transnational and multinational corporations (TNCs, MNCs). They locate their production where it is most cost-effective. Thus, the well-known TNC IBM has its branches in 80 countries, Siemens in 52 countries, etc.

Questions and tasks:

1. How does the concept of scientific and technological progress differ from the concept of scientific and technological revolution?
2. Explain the expression: “scientific and technological revolution is a qualitatively new stage in the development of productive forces.” Why does it contribute to the accelerated development of countries?
3. What impact does scientific and technical progress have on the international division of labor and the development of the world economy?
4. Give examples of countries in which, under the influence of scientific and technological progress, a different sectoral structure of the economy has developed?