At the Polytechnic Institute, we techies were given a short course in economics. After the understandable, formalized technical disciplines, this science seemed to be a collection of primitive concepts that unsuccessfully tried to explain the complex processes occurring in society. Much later, the reason why these attempts remained unsuccessful became clear to me. Clarity began to appear after I paid attention to the history of the formation of foreign and then domestic economic thought. It turned out that even the first economists were not initially focused on studying real socio-economic processes. Economics, like no other science, has depended and continues to depend on progress in understanding many fundamental concepts that determine the general culture of thinking among people. Her development was always hampered for reasons beyond her control, and she could not change this situation on her own. Without general progress in the culture of thinking, economics began with works devoted to financial, accounting transactions, and remained at this quality level. Therefore, financiers and accountants are in demand, and academic economists remain aloof from real economic processes. And it is no coincidence that, having gone through a certain historical path of its evolution, the science of economics is now increasingly inclined towards psychology, jurisprudence, civil and criminal law. As a result, the “product”, which is still the cornerstone of this science, before our eyes turns into a right transferred to another person, legally justified for something. As they say - it was yours, but it became ours! That's all! For the one who conveyed the latter, all the achievements of the economy end here finally, forever. But if suddenly someone needs it, then not learned economists, but lawyers who are experienced in law, will always be there and explain to all participants in such an exchange its expediency and legality. Laws of modern economic science are unique in that they are absolutely subjective, since they are closed by a certain archaic culture of people’s thinking. Archaism consists in the fact that thinking does not distinguish the main thing - the meaning of collective work. For such thinking, the meaning of the collective work of all people is limited to the design of the elite. Each elite strives to keep people's thinking unchanged, in accordance with historically formed traditions, through politics, science, religion, culture and, in particular, economics. The problem is that the existing archaic culture of thinking among people everywhere is artificially restrained and remains qualitatively unchanged for centuries. And it is not surprising that all economists agreed in a unanimous opinion to consider not the meaning, the intention of collective labor, but the movement of goods and everything that is connected with it. It is clear that in science, where its adherents have adopted such a culture of thinking as a basis, there is and cannot be any talk of any collective work. For them, as well as for the former Minister of Finance, Doctor of Economics A.Ya. Lifshitz “Economy is like a woman. Will you understand her?
2. Implementation of the principle of complexity in municipal management
3. Practical part
List of used literature
1. The concept of "real economy"
municipal management management planning
Real economy is an economy directly related to material production, making a profit and filling the budget.
Today, the real sector of the Russian economy is experiencing a deep recession. At the same time, the financial sector is growing at a rapid pace, sometimes the fastest in the world. These “scissors” in the profitability of the virtual and real sectors of the economy constitute the same “bulldozer” that destroys even fully operational plants and factories in Russia.
Production in the real sector of the economy is declining due to a compression of effective demand, a decrease in real money supply, high lending rates, cessation of lending, high tariffs for electricity, gas and water.
Entire industries turned out to be unprofitable - metallurgy, mechanical engineering, wood processing, manufacturing building materials, textile and clothing, leather and footwear, pulp and paper, chemical, rubber and plastic products.
Having started in the financial sector, the current crisis is destroying precisely financial capital, but real production, the profitability of which is lower than the profitability in the field of financial speculation. This deepens the fundamental cause of the crisis, namely, the colossal overaccumulation of capital, which does not correspond to the values actually produced.
Similar processes are observed in many countries around the world. Where consumption has exceeded production, there is a further decline everywhere real sector. Confirmation of this comes constantly. In the USA, Europe, and Japan, against the background of growing stock markets, many enterprises in the real sector are going bankrupt. For example, in the USA, the bankrupt GM concern alone will close 11 factories, dissolve 40% of dealerships and lay off 21 thousand people. Many of GM's foreign partners will suffer.
But the fact that this is not only a problem for Russia is of little reassurance. Industries in the real sector were too dependent on bank lending. Now, in thousands of still operating enterprises, there is a rapid increase in bank debts and overdue debts. wages. A critical mass is accumulating, which in the near future, perhaps as early as this fall, could destroy entire industries.
Government and central bank Russia has had trillions of rubles poured into its financial system in previous months. Now, fighting the inevitable inflation as a result, they are tightening monetary policy. And tightening lending conditions naturally hits the real sector. Although the rise in inflation has stopped for now, the price of this suspension has been a compression of effective demand and a drop in trade turnover.
At the beginning of the year, in order to curb inflation, the Central Bank raised ruble interest rates. Enterprises receive funds at 22-25%, and in some cases at 30% per annum . Naturally, in a crisis, such loans are beyond the reach of the real sector.
He, "sowed" in last years stuck on loans, unable to get new ones. In conditions of sharply fallen demand for products and services, many companies will not be able to repay loans taken before the crisis on time and will face the prospect of bankruptcy. To survive in conditions so high interest rates Only financial speculators can, which, incidentally, is what they demonstrate.
The current situation is radically different from the 1998 crisis. In particular, due to the fact that over the past six months we have not seen a sufficiently serious development of import substitution - despite an almost two-fold decrease in import volumes and the collapse of the ruble. Moreover, as we have already said, the contraction of real production continues and the development conditions for the producing sectors of the economy are deteriorating. We began to eat and buy goods a little less, but did not produce more.
On the contrary, production is contracting, as is investment in fixed capital. The situation on the labor market and in the transport sector is deteriorating. But financial markets, which in 1999 were generally in their infancy, are growing rapidly.
Dynamics of the first stage of post-crisis recovery of real sectors of the Russian economy in January-May of this year relative to the same period last year, %
| January-May 1999 | January-April 2009 | |
| Industrial output volume | 101,5 | 82,9 |
| Products Agriculture | 96,0 | 101,5 |
| Investments in fixed assets | 98,0 | 85 |
| Freight turnover of transport enterprises | 102,6 | 82,3 |
| Turnover retail | 84,7 | 97,8 |
| Real disposable cash income | 73,8 | 99 |
| Unemployed, officially registered | 96,6 | 171,7 |
Of course, there is some good news. The situation in agriculture has improved slightly. In May, there were signs of stabilization in certain sectors of the manufacturing industry. The population is gradually adapting to the conditions of the crisis. Perhaps this was helped by the adoption of a number of customs and tariff regulation measures. But all these successes are insignificant, import substitution is proceeding sluggishly and will in no way be able to compensate for the general deepening of the recession in the real sector. And in agriculture the situation is generally extremely bad. Even with a complete cessation of imports of products, our village will not be able to work better without tractors, combines, other equipment, and fertilizers.
2. Implementation of the principle of complexity in municipal management
The principle of complexity. This principle is important for integrity when constructing a structure and requires, when analyzing a structure, to proceed primarily from the integrity of a particular function. This is especially important in the case when the performance of a function is distributed across different structures or when all administration structures are used in the execution of this function.
Comprehensive socio-economic development of municipalities Federal law"On the general principles of organizing local self-government in Russian Federation"relegated to the powers of local self-government. Under integrated socio-economic development municipality is understood as a controlled process of changes in various spheres of life of a municipality, aimed at achieving a certain level of development of the social (including spiritual) and economic spheres in the territory of the municipality, with the least damage to natural resources and the highest level of satisfaction of the collective needs of the population and the interests of the state. In this direction, the following actions are carried out: local target programs are approved and implemented, municipal orders are issued, forms of participation of enterprises and organizations in the development of the municipality are agreed upon, contracts are concluded, etc.
Management of the comprehensive socio-economic development of a municipality is understood as the management of mutually agreed upon programs (projects) for the development of all spheres of life of the municipality, agreed on resources, deadlines in accordance with the priorities accepted by the population, as well as accepted for execution on the basis of contracts or by law, federal and regional programs development.
No matter how continuous the process of development and management may seem, the general fundamental feature of the process of managing the development of municipalities is its cyclical nature. In the issue of managing the development of a municipal formation, two approaches (or two strategies) are considered:
First approach. If the development management cycle has fairly clear boundaries, then there is a beginning of the development management cycle and its end. In this case, the full cycle of managing comprehensive socio-economic development can be conditionally divided into the period of development of a program for comprehensive socio-economic development and the period of implementation of this program.
Second approach. In large municipalities, a program for comprehensive socio-economic development can be so complex that there will be a need to consider the entire development management process as a combination of two relatively independent management processes: program development and its implementation. It is obvious that these two processes, developing relatively independently, must be strictly coordinated in terms of timing.
However, no matter how complex the management process may be, it can always be divided into separate specific short-term projects, in the management of which the following main stages (cycles) of managing the complex socio-economic development of a municipality can be distinguished as relatively independent:
during the development of the development program:
Collection and processing of information;
Goal setting (goal setting);
Development of strategic guidelines and development criteria;
Assessment of development potential and resources;
Development of a concept for comprehensive socio-economic development of the municipality;
Development and adoption of a program for comprehensive socio-economic development of the municipality
During the implementation of the development program:
Development and adoption of a development budget;
Execution of the development budget in accordance with the program of comprehensive socio-economic development;
Control, collection and processing of information and development of proposals for adjusting the program (concept).
So, the main feature of planning and distribution by stages of the process of comprehensive socio-economic development of a municipality is that periods of planning and adjustment of plans must be consistent with the characteristic time cycles of the life of a municipality, such as the development and adoption of a budget, the term of office of local government bodies and etc.
In the context of the transition to market relations, one of the main goals of the ongoing economic reforms is to improve management. The formation of market relations is associated with the development of new forms of management based on a variety of forms of ownership. This implies radical changes in the economic mechanism and methods of regional management, especially at the micro level.
Therefore, in these conditions, among the branches of scientific knowledge, municipal management is of particular importance - a scientific discipline in the system of economic knowledge that studies the management of regional socio-economic systems. The very concept of “management” is considered in modern economic science as the most effective type of management that meets the objectives of a market economy.
Municipal management uses knowledge of other scientific economic disciplines studied in economic universities: management, marketing, fundamentals economic theory, economics and sociology of labor, statistics, etc. Municipal management uses their methods and conclusions for its own development and at the same time enriches these branches of economic knowledge with its data.
One of the important issues under the jurisdiction of municipal management of local self-government are issues of a managerial nature, namely the construction of a management system that is most acceptable and effective for each municipal entity; development and adoption of municipal charters and monitoring their compliance; financial and economic support of the municipality.
3. Practical part
Socio-economic status Chelyabinsk region
The economic development of the Chelyabinsk region in 2008 was characterized by mainly positive dynamics; most of the main socio-economic indicators achieved growth compared to 2007 levels. At the same time, the growth rate in 2008 was slightly lower than in 2007, and the volume of industrial production decreased.
In general, in almost all areas of economic activity, the main reasons for this situation were: a fairly high base in 2007 (in 2007, the Chelyabinsk region had very high rates of development of industrial production, construction, transport, trade and foreign economic activity) and the developing world economic crisis, the impact of which on the regional economy began to manifest itself in the third quarter and especially in the fourth quarter of 2008.
The current crisis presupposes a serious renewal of the structure of the global and regional economy. Trends in the decline in the status of socially significant, knowledge-intensive activities indicate degradation of the structure of industrial production in the direction of increasing the role of raw materials industries, namely metallurgical production.
The industrial production index in 2008 compared to 2007 was 96.8% (in 2007 compared to 2006 - 112.8%). The largest reduction in production volumes occurred in mining industries - by 4.7%, in manufacturing industries - by 3.3%, in organizations for the production and distribution of electricity, gas and water - by 2.9%.
Foreign trade activities of the Chelyabinsk region are characterized by the continued hypertrophy of raw materials production in the export structure (the share of ferrous and non-ferrous metals in export volumes is more than 88%) and, as a consequence, dependence on world prices. In general, in 2008, the volume of exports increased by 16.6% (in 2007 - by 31.3%), the volume of imports - by 43.5% (in 2007 - by 64.5%). The volume of foreign trade turnover in 2008 increased by 24.3%, which is 14.9 percentage points lower than the 2007 level.
In 2008, 178.4 billion rubles of investment in fixed assets were allocated to the economy of the Chelyabinsk region from all sources of financing. The growth compared to 2007 was 112.4%. At the same time, by the end of the year there was a trend towards a reduction in investment volumes.
The following types of economic activity remain the most attractive for investors directing funds into fixed assets: “Manufacturing”, “Transport and communications”, “Production and distribution of electricity, gas and water”, “Operations with real estate, rent and provision of services."
Volume of receipts in the non-financial sector of the economy of the Chelyabinsk region foreign investment(including ruble investments converted into US dollars) in 2008 increased by 2.4 times compared to 2007 (2007 - 90.6%).
In total, in 2008, the non-financial sector of the region received 3166.6 million US dollars of foreign investment (including ruble investments converted into US dollars). Of the foreign investments received in 2008, only 37.0% of their total volume was used. The main areas of use are payment for raw materials, supplies, components (18.7% of the total volume of incoming foreign investments), investments in fixed capital (9.9%), repayment of bank loans and loans (0.8%).
The overwhelming majority (99.2%) of incoming foreign investments was aimed at the development of industrial activities, of which 59.3% into the production and distribution of electricity, gas and water. As of the end of December 2008, foreign capital accumulated in the regional economy amounted to 3,305.6 million US dollars (end of December 2007 - 1,676.4 million US dollars).
The volume of work performed in the “Construction” type of activity in 2008 amounted to 80.5 billion rubles, an increase compared to last year - 120.5% (in 2007 - 136.2%).
In 2008, 5,516 residential buildings were built in the region with total area 2024 thousand square meters, which is 21% more than in 2007. Individual developers introduced 736.9 thousand square meters of living space, an increase compared to 2007 levels of 106.1%. On average, 577 square meters of housing were commissioned per 1,000 residents of the region.
Transport freight turnover common use over the past year amounted to 71.4 billion t-km and increased by 0.6%.
The volume of agricultural products in 2008 amounted to 62.7 billion rubles, or 101.8% of the 2007 level.
According to the Ministry of Finance of the Chelyabinsk Region, territorial budget expenditures amounted to 111.4 billion rubles, revenues - 105.5 billion rubles, and the deficit amounted to 5.9 billion rubles. A significant portion of budget revenues comes from taxes on corporate profits and income individuals(60.8%). In the expenditure side of the budget, the main share is occupied by expenses for education (23.3%), which decreased by 1.7 percentage points compared to 2007. Compared to 2007, the share of expenses on housing and communal services in the structure of expenses increased economy by 3.1 percentage points and amounted to 15.3%, social policy- by 0.5 percentage points (14.1%). The share of costs for healthcare and sports decreased by 4 percentage points and amounted to 14.5%, for culture, cinematography and means mass media- by 0.5 percentage points (2.3%).
In the structure of tax revenues in 2008 compared to 2007, there was an increase in taxes on personal income (by 7.4 p.p.), their share was 34.2%, property taxes (by 1.1 p.p. .) - 10.0%. The largest share of tax revenues to the regional budget still comes from taxes on corporate profits - 40.8%.
In 2008, organizations (excluding small businesses, banks, insurance and budget organizations) received a balanced profit (profit minus loss) before tax in current prices in the amount of 53.8 billion rubles. Its volume decreased by 2.5 times compared to the level of 2007. In the formation of a balanced financial result the largest contribution was made by organizations of manufacturing industries (65.1%), at the same time, compared to 2007, they made the most significant decrease among basic activities (by 59.8%) in profit volume. Almost every fourth organization (27.9%) as a result economic activity was unprofitable last year. The share of unprofitable organizations in 2008 compared to 2007 increased by 3.7 percentage points, the amount of loss - by 6.1 times.
In 2008, in all sectors of the economy, price growth exceeded the level of the previous year.
In the consumer market of goods and services, prices increased by 12.8%, including for services - by 17.8% (in 2007 - by 12.2%), food products - by 16.1% (by 16.1 %), non-food products - by 6.4% (by 5.7%).
In the manufacturing sector, the largest increase in prices (18.6%) was observed for construction products and industrial goods, of which chemical production products rose in price by 30.8%, metallurgical production - by 20.7%.
Freight tariffs increased by 21.1%.
In the consumer market of goods and services in the region, the physical volume of retail trade turnover continues to grow. Retail trade turnover in 2008 compared to last year increased by 22.4% and amounted to 347.4 billion rubles. Retail trade turnover in food products increased by 19.3%, in non-food products - by 24.6%.
A trend towards slower growth dynamics was observed during 2008 in the field of paid services to the population. In general, for the year the index of the physical volume of paid services to the population amounted to 102.3% (in 2007 - 110.0%).
Last year, real disposable income of the population increased by 14.6% compared to 2007.
The high differentiation of the population by income level continued to increase. The income of the most affluent group of the population in 2008 was 14.7 times higher than the income of the least affluent group of the population (in 2007 - 13.9 times). The 10% of the richest population accounted for 29.8% of total cash income, and the 10% of the least affluent population accounted for 2.0% (in 2007 - 29.2 and 2.1%, respectively). Cash income Approximately every tenth resident of the Chelyabinsk region was below the subsistence level.
In 2008, the average monthly nominal accrued wages (excluding social payments) increased by 24.6% compared to the previous year (in 2007 - by 27.2%), real accrued wages increased by 8.8%. The differentiation of wages by type of economic activity remains quite high. Thus, the highest wage was 4.2 times higher than the lowest wage.
In the fourth quarter of 2008, a number of organizations in the region, due to a lack of their own funds, had overdue wages. As of November 1, 2008 total amount wage arrears (across the range of observed activities) amounted to 4.4 million rubles, as of January 1, 2009 - 70.1 million rubles. On average, each employee to whom there is a debt, the organization owes 12,474.0 rubles.
Formation Analysis work force in the Chelyabinsk region, based on data on the number of economically active population based on materials from sample surveys of the population on employment problems, showed that the population providing labor supply increased by 7.4% compared to last year and amounted to 1877.1 thousand people.
In the economically active population, 1794.9 thousand people are people who have a job or gainful employment, and 82.2 thousand people are people who do not have work or gainful employment, looking for work and ready to start it, who, in accordance with according to the methodology of the International Labor Organization, are classified as unemployed.
The number of employed people in 2008 increased by 5.3% compared to the previous year and amounted to 95.6% of the economically active population.
In 2008, the number of unemployed almost doubled, and the unemployment rate increased by 1.9 percentage points. and amounted to 4.4%.
The level of registered unemployment by the end of December 2008 in the region as a whole amounted to 1.8% of the economically active population, exceeding the same figure in 2007 by 0.2 percentage points.
The main directions of anti-crisis measures are:
1. Support for the real sector of the economy.
2. Implementation of large investment projects to increase the competitiveness of the regional economy.
3. Stabilization of the situation on the labor market.
4. Attracting federal budget funds, increasing efficiency of use budget funds.
5. Improving the quality of life of the population. Implementation of national projects.
Firstly, targeted support from the regional budget was provided to more than 320 enterprises in the real sector of the economy. Support was provided, first of all, to city-forming enterprises in the cities of Asha, Karabash, Satka, V-Ufaley, Zlatoust, Katav-Ivanovsk, Kyshtym, Nyazepetrovsk, Ust-Katav, Bakal, Minyar and others. As a result, the enterprises that received targeted support managed to save jobs and workforces.
The return of income taxes - more than 10 billion rubles - provided serious support to enterprises. from the regional budget, despite a sharp drop in its revenue.
Work has been organized with the federal center to provide state support to systemically important enterprises included in the federal list. As a result:
ChMK received a loan of 80 million euros for the construction of a rail and beam mill.
ChTZ - a decision was made to subsidize loans in the amount of 484 million rubles, of which 114 million rubles. have already been received. State support was provided to Ufaleynickel, where production fell by more than 3 times from the pre-crisis level, in purchasing its products for the state reserve.
The situation with the financing of state defense orders has changed for the better, although full volumes have not been achieved.
The governor sent more than 100 letters to various departments in support of industrial enterprises.
To receive state support from the federal budget, packages of documents for 19 enterprises of regional importance were sent to the Ministry of Regional Development, the Ministry of Industry and Trade, and the Ministry of Health and Social Development of Russia.
For 6 “sick” enterprises (Zlatoust Metallurgical Plant, Katav-Ivanovsky Mechanical Plant, Vekhneufaleysky Metallurgical Engineering Plant, Ashinsky Metallurgical Plant, Nyazepetrovsky Crane Plant, Strommashina), the Governor, the owners and management of the enterprises signed separate protocols on anti-crisis measures, and the Governor personally keeps control their implementation. In pursuance of the Governor’s anti-crisis plan to save ZMZ:
An authorized representative of the Governor was sent to the plant;
Electric steelmaking, rolling production, and an open-hearth shop were launched;
Salary arrears have been repaid;
A strategic investor has been found - ChMK.
As a result, in August 4 times more metal products will be sold than in July, more than 6 thousand people who did not join the labor market of Zlatoust returned to their jobs.
Special attention was given to supporting small businesses, whose role as one of the main sources of creating new jobs and replenishing local budgets increased significantly during the crisis. In order to reduce administrative barriers, in February the Governor signed an order to suspend scheduled inspections, and conduct unscheduled inspections only in agreement with the prosecutor's office.
The tax rate for entrepreneurs working on a “simplified” basis has been reduced from 15 to 10%.
In order to increase the availability of loans, a guarantee fund began to operate, with 7 partner banks involved in interaction with it. With 110 million rubles allocated. budget funds, taking into account the multipliers declared by banks, guarantees will be provided to small businesses in the amount of more than 500 million rubles. Lists of regional and municipal property have been approved for lease to entrepreneurs on a long-term basis and preferential terms(which is more than 1,800 objects with an area of 744 thousand sq. m).
259 decisions have been made on the purchase of leased property by entrepreneurs, and 77 purchase and sale agreements have already been concluded. In May, a business incubator was opened for small businesses from socially disadvantaged segments of the population, where 30 enterprises are already operating (that’s 142 new jobs).
Due to the measures taken, more than 8 thousand new jobs were created in the first half of the year.
Secondly, the main thing in the current conditions is structural changes in economics, the creation of new industries to produce competitive products. As part of supporting investment activities:
Mechanisms for interaction with investors on the principle of “one window” and public-private partnership have been launched;
State support was provided to 9 enterprises implementing investment projects.
List of used literature
1. Comprehensive report "Socio-economic situation of the Chelyabinsk region" January-November 2009
2. Bartenev S.A. "Economic theories and schools (history and modernity): A course of lectures." - M.: Publishing House Beck, 2006. - 352 p.
3. Borisov E. F. Fundamentals of economic theory. – M.: new wave, 2004.
4. Glazyev S.Yu. Supporting science is a priority of Russia's economic policy. M., 2007.
5. Nosova S.S. – M.: Humanitarian. ed. VLADOS center, 2005. – 519 p. – (Textbook for universities).
6. The path to the 21st century: Strategic problems and prospects for the Russian economy. - M.: Economics, 2009. - 793 p. - (Systemic problems of Russia).
The degree to which capital is tied to any particular country has decreased significantly, and at the same time the role of the financial sector has increased significantly.
At the same time, the role of states or their associations, such as the European Union, has significantly increased throughout the world, and a certain socialization of economic entities is also observed. The latter is expressed in the consolidation of the role of transnational corporations and international financial and commodity exchanges, transnational banks.
If until the last quarter of the 20th century the role of private capital prevailed, now the public sector is increasingly important and market institutions world economy. States become the guarantor of economic stability of large corporations and actively use own funds to create enterprises. An approach based on joint ownership of private individuals and the state as a subject of law and economic activity is often used.
Development of the Russian economy at the present stage
Feature Russian development economy is a targeted combination various forms property. There are no specific tools for regulating the economy in the Russian Federation; each time, what is most optimal for the current situation is used. The same can be said about the methods of distribution of the national product.The main way to participate in macroeconomic processes is the export of natural resources, not only hydrocarbons, which the country is rich in, but also various metals, as well as rare minerals. In addition, the products of chemical enterprises, equipment and machinery, agricultural products and different kinds weapons.
Since 2014, economic sanctions have had a negative impact on exports. Nevertheless, the Russian Federation remains the world's largest supplier of crude oil and natural gas.
If in the period before 2014 it was still possible to say that the presence of natural resources and competent investment policies had a positive effect on the standard of living of the population, then during the period of tightening sanctions, downward changes in world oil prices, national currency and the ongoing economic crisis, the situation of the poorest segments of the population has become critical. Added to this is that domestic politics turned out to be incompatible with the development of small businesses. There is a widespread tendency towards the development of large farms and the curtailment of individual entrepreneurship.
The Russian state does not guarantee the low-income segments of the population any acceptable life.
Modern economic models in other countries of the world
What do the main ones look like? economic trends in other countries of the world?In the USA and Europe, the ideology of the superiority of high-tech methods of creating wealth dominates. The state intervenes slightly in market processes, but retains a large amount of property. Entrepreneurial activity is actively encouraged, including small businesses. The service sector plays a big role. Social protection population leads to the fact that the issue of social inequality is no longer relevant. Serious attention is paid antimonopoly policy and the development of healthy competition.
In Japan, the state does not directly participate in economic activities, but retains control over the most important aspects economic life. Particular attention is paid to personnel policy, and 45% public funds spent on social needs.
China remains a unique country where market economy adjacent to the command-administrative control system. The incomes of different segments of the population do not differ significantly, and the stimulation of entrepreneurship is greatly influenced by the Chinese living outside the country.
Modern humanity is accustomed to operating with a number of terms directly related to management activities, the state system, way of life and society. Examples include definitions such as " gross product", "import", "export", "taxation" and others. Along with them there is such a concept as economics, which is used today not only in the field of politics, the media, but also among the ordinary population.
Origin and meaning of the term
Etymologically, this concept goes back to the Greek language. The simplest morphological analysis of this word allows us to talk about its two-part nature. The first component is directly related to the definition of the law, the second - to the economy. Thus, we can say that initially economics is a way of organization. More precisely, the term originally meant running a household in accordance with the norms and rules established by law.
Features of the original interpretation
Attention should be paid to the fact that the primary meaning of the concept was significantly different from the current one. This is due to the characteristics of the organization ancient Greece generally. By farming was meant, first of all, housekeeping, and not its popular manifestation, to which people were accustomed modern society. Thus, initially economics is the art of managing a subsistence economy.
It is this meaning of the term that was included in the first explanatory dictionaries and, in a sense, has been preserved to this day. The very concept of economics was introduced into everyday speech by the ancient Greek philosopher Xenophon.
Expansion of meaning
As you know, the world does not stand still, so any terminological and ontological phenomenon sooner or later acquires new meanings and interpretations. The semantic properties of a particular word are gradually expanded, transformed and adjusted to the needs of the existing society.
IN modern world Economics is a much broader, voluminous concept and phenomenon, something that existed in the minds of the ancient Greeks.
The first understanding by modern man
Like any other phenomenon of this kind, the concept discussed in this article has received several interpretations. In the very general view economy is a system that is used by a specific state and all of humanity to ensure optimal life activity, form and improve the conditions of its own existence.
IN in this case this means not only any material resources and the conditions of their action on the territory of a particular country, but also the totality of all material, spiritual benefits, all kinds of objects and things, the existence of which is aimed at improving the standard of living, ensuring movement forward in terms of the development of the national economy in the most general sense of the word.
Scientific component
Standing apart, based on the concept described above, is the concept of economics as a science. In this case, we mean a certain abstract body of knowledge acquired by humanity and each country in particular about the peculiarities of the organization of this very national economy, ways to improve the quality of life, options for formalizing state and interstate relations.
In this context, the concept of economics as a science is closely related to such sciences as sociology, psychology and, of course, political science.
Species delimitation
As can be seen from the above, both science and the phenomenon itself, the subject of its study, is a kind of system - multi-level and complex. Sectors of the economy can be very different and belong to one or another sector of the government system. The study question may focus on market relations or the peculiarities of farming. The research can be aimed at a comparative analysis of the patterns of organization of different states and the whole world as a whole. Modern economics opens up enormous scope for research in this regard.
Industry division
The choice as an object and subject of study indicates the presence of a clear division of the economy as a whole into its certain levels and types. Each of them requires detailed study and tracking to create an adequate picture and application necessary measures to improve the quality of life of the city, country and the whole world.
Sectors of the economy are formed as a result of an objective historical process, the development of the state and society. This term should be understood as a certain set of single-order, similar in their structure economic enterprises. Consolidation and demarcation occurs according to the principle of community in relation to the organization or manufactured products. Each specialized industry, in turn, is divided into smaller structures. Correlating with each other, they form a number of inter-industry complexes, the correct operation of which is a guarantor of a stable and developing economy.
World space
In this case, we mean the main, global massif of the economy, the highest point of its structure. The world economy is the totality of national economies and industries of all countries of the globe in their dynamics, development and expansion.
This concept can be called the most abstract, since it has no connection to a specific area, structure, or industry. By and large, world economy- this is a kind of image, an abstraction that requires study and gives an understanding of the direction of development of a particular structure, system and industry. Tracking it is necessary for development international relations, forming partnership communities, coordinating the world monetary fund, acquiring interstate connections in the field of trade, industry or investing in science.
Second level
Next in importance and breadth of coverage is considered National economy. It is formed by 2 groups of industries, united according to the principle of similarity of scope. In this case, we mean the range of industries responsible for social sphere existence, and those that form material production countries.
The first include the healthcare system, education, social payments, tourism, consumer services and sports. The material sector includes the construction sector, the transport system, communications, domestic and foreign trade.
Each national economy includes a micro and macro level and, if in the first case we are talking about the coordination and regulation of internal processes determined by particulars, in the second we are talking about integrity, the general level of development without reference to a specific education or sphere of production.
The state economy, being regulated at the local level, is ultimately included in the global totality, the world system.
Modern conditions
Today, humanity lives in an already formed system. Considering its features, levels and organization, it can be defined by a term such as a market economy.
This type of relationship is based on the principle of competition, consumer freedom and the ability to choose in the matter of purchasing something. The market economy is based on the right of private property, which is inviolable for a third party, but can be acquired by him in whole or in part.
A characteristic feature of this type of government system can be called freedom in relation to entrepreneurship. Any person can independently begin the production of certain goods and provide various services by registering his own organization in state system to ensure taxation.
In such a situation, the entrepreneur can independently determine the sales market, the cost of the product offered, its quality and ways of sale. Such freedom ensures the presence of competition, which is the basic, main characteristic of a market economy.
Note that it works this system not only at public or private (enterprise level), but also at international level. A typical example is the wholesale supply of gas by Russia or equipment by China to other countries. The process of interaction between countries and interstate unions (for example, the European Union) determines the basis of the world economy, its features and development paths. Experts in this field monitor the resulting dynamics and, reacting to the information received, work to create suitable soil for further development and improving the global economy.
Many questions have accumulated for modern economic science. Is it the same as physics and chemistry or is it something completely different? Is there something in common between the natural sciences and economics that makes them similar? Or is this a different type of knowledge altogether?
Over the course of the 20th century, economic science has strengthened its position both from the point of view of its “internal” development and from the position of social significance. The breakthrough made in the development of economics was so great that it allowed it to take one of the first (if not first!) places among other sciences. Despite this, many of its methodological features remain not fully understood. So, on the one hand, economic research is fundamentally different from research in the natural sciences, and on the other hand, it has much in common with them. Much the same is true for economics and other social disciplines.
The differences between economics and other sciences begin with the object of research, affect methods of studying the economic world and the very structure of science, and end with methods of practical use of the results obtained and forms of influence on social ideology and the real course of events. At the same time, it would be a grave mistake not to see those general methodological points that make economics similar to the exact disciplines and allow it to harmoniously integrate into the general edifice of modern scientific research. This state of affairs creates a very unique and complex interaction between economics and other sciences, both natural and social. This article is devoted to the disclosure of such general and specific aspects in economics.
It should be noted right away that personal ideas There will be few authors in this work; in most cases, references to authoritative opinions of recognized scientific luminaries will appear here. This approach seems completely justified, since most of the issues we raise have been discussed in detail previously, thereby depriving us of the opportunity to say something fundamentally new. Nevertheless, a systematic and compact presentation of modern views on economic science is still missing, which determines the relevance and significance of the presented article.
SUBJECT, TASKS, IDEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE
Let us consider the subject and tasks of economic science. Only by clearly outlining the contours of what science does can we move further towards understanding its specifics.
Based on the position of A. Poincaré that any science is a system of relations, the task of economic science is to collect facts, systematize, interpret them and draw appropriate conclusions from them. To understand the essence of economics, J. Schumpeter’s thesis is very useful that its roots lie, on the one hand, in philosophy, and on the other, in disputes about pressing problems and difficulties.
The first approach to a constructive understanding of the subject of economics is J.S. Mill's statement that this discipline views man as engaged in the acquisition and consumption of wealth. A. Marshall gives an equally capacious and compact definition, saying that economics views wealth as a tool for satisfying “needs” and as a result of “efforts.” Its more detailed definition reads: “Economics is the study of the normal functioning of human society; it studies that sphere of individual and social actions that is closely related to the creation and use of the material foundations of well-being. Consequently, on the one hand, it represents is a study of wealth, and on the other hand, forms part of the study of man." An important comment and addition to this definition is the following Marshallese maxim: "economics is the study of how people exist, develop and what people think about in Everyday life. But the main subject of her research are those incentives that most strongly and most consistently influence a person’s behavior in the economic sphere of his life.”
Despite the fact that the above definition by A. Marshall is the most accurate and comprehensive, it still needs some clarification. First of all, modern economics studies not only normal, but also abnormal effects in social life, as well as not only material, but also intangible foundations of well-being.
It is precisely this broad interpretation of the subject of research that is characteristic of economic science. today. This is due to the fact that modern economists, having already penetrated quite deeply into the depths of social phenomena, they are trying to explain particularly complex effects that during the time of A. Marshall remained unnoticed (for example, abnormal effects in pricing, abnormal emergence of inflationary trends, unnatural inhibition of crisis processes, etc.). This touches on extremely subtle aspects of human behavior, many of which are intangible in nature (for example, considering human capital as a factor of production and consumption, the role of time and information in economic circulation, etc.).
There are other, narrower ideas about the subject of economics. For example, according to R. Barr, economics is the science of managing rare resources. According to L. Stoleru, “finding ways to make the best use of national resources has become the very definition of economic science.” Such definitions, while not fundamentally erroneous, still cannot serve as a guide in understanding the subject. modern economy. However, they very accurately highlight the challenges of modern economic analysis, which is how they justify their existence.
The merging of the subject, tasks, categorical apparatus and methodological tools of economic science leads to the formation of its ideology. By the latter we mean a certain methodological approach or a certain specific perspective of scientific analysis, which is so universal that it can be used when “splitting” any social problem. Economic ideology has a “two-link” structure and can be generally formulated as follows: all observed changes in the socio-economic system can be explained by two types of shifts - shifts in the level of prices and incomes (the first “link”) and shifts in the level of results and costs (second “link”). In accordance with this approach, any political, social, military, ethnic and other social metamorphoses can be translated into economic language, interpreted in appropriate terms and explained using the theories, principles and laws available in the arsenal of economic science.
The specification of the tasks of economic analysis automatically determines the structure of economics, which, like any other science, aims to describe, explain and anticipate facts, as well as guide our actions. Accordingly, the theories she uses are based on four classes of models: descriptive, explanatory, predictive and decision-making models. Although this division of economic theories and models is somewhat arbitrary (some models may simultaneously belong to several classes), it still quite well illustrates the structure of modern economic science and allows us to clearly determine the place and role of each specific study in it.
In turn, the general body of economic knowledge can be divided into three large groups. In accordance with the classification of J.N. Keynes, the following scientific strata are distinguished: positive economics as the sum of systematized knowledge about what exists; normative economics as the sum of systematized knowledge about what should exist; economic art as a system of rules for achieving a given goal. Only the first group and small parts of the second and third groups belong to economic science. This is due to the fact that the transition from descriptive (positive) economics to normative (recommendatory) and from normative economics to economic policy(the art of decision making) the level of scientific uncertainty increases dramatically. For natural and technical sciences, this state of affairs is less typical.
LAWS AND PRINCIPLES: THEIR ESSENCE AND DIALECTICS OF RELATIONSHIP
Any serious science must contain its own specific laws in its arsenal. Economics is no exception. Moreover, according to A. Marshall, science itself is moving forward by increasing quantities And accuracy their laws, subjecting them to increasingly stringent scrutiny and expanding their scope. This logic of the development of scientific knowledge is determined by the simple fact that “if some law is true, then with its help you can discover another law.” The very possibility of “stringing” some laws onto others is associated with the fundamental properties of human thinking, for “the law itself is a method, way of perception mind a series of phenomena and this process occurs in our mind."
To understand the uniqueness of economic laws, let us first find out what a law is in general. There are many definitions on this subject, but perhaps none of them provides comprehensive information. In this regard, let us consider a certain set of opinions on this issue, which will ultimately give a fairly full view about the law.
At the most elementary level, the understanding of the essence of the law was well revealed by R. Feynman: “natural phenomena have their own forms And rhythms, inaccessible to the eye of the contemplator, but open to the eye of the analyst; we call these forms and rhythms laws.” The generally accepted definition is: “a law is an internal, essential and stable connection between phenomena that determines their orderly change.” In S. Vivekananda’s interpretation, “the law is the tendency of phenomena to repeat themselves.” According to A. Poincaré, “a law is the relationship between a condition and a consequence; it is a constant connection between the previous and the subsequent, between current state world and the immediate upcoming state."
Along with laws there are so-called scientific principles, by which we mean certain extremely general and universal provisions regarding the nature of the occurrence of the phenomena being studied, which have the widest possible scope of application. The dialectic of law and principle, in our opinion, is exhaustively revealed by R. Feynman: “the variety of individual laws is permeated with certain general principles, which are contained in one way or another in every law." Thus, any science must include certain basic principles about their subject of research and various laws reflecting individual aspects of this subject. Otherwise, the field of knowledge turns into a meaningless set of disparate information.
The presence of laws automatically presupposes a certain mathematization of science. This is due to the fact that any relationships and connections are expressed by equations, and if the equations remain valid, then the desired relationships retain their reality. In other words, any relationship can be represented by a geometric curve. Consequently, any law has meaning as such only if it is expressed in mathematical form. Experience shows that almost any meaningful verbal formulation of laws can be successfully translated into the language of mathematics; otherwise, verbal constructions turn into a banal statement of some primitive facts and cannot lay claim to the role of universal laws.
Let us summarize what has been said: any science consists of certain general principles of the functioning of the system being studied, as well as specific laws that establish in mathematical form a connection between individual phenomena.
Specifying what has been said in relation to economics, we point out that among the fundamental economic principles G. Becker, for example, identifies the following: the principle of maximizing behavior of the subject (principle of rationality), the principle of market equilibrium and the principle of stability of tastes and preferences of economic agents. These principles are implicit in various economic laws. For example, the laws of L. Walras, J.-B. Say and D. Hume are “hung” on the principle of market equilibrium, the laws of J. M. Keynes, G. Gossen and J. Hicks are “hung” on the principle of rationality, etc.
INACCURACY OF ECONOMIC LAWS
Economic science, like any other science, consists of specific laws and principles. At the same time, the so-called “paradox of ignorance” is widely observed among economists, according to which many qualified specialists cannot name at least a dozen economic laws. The existence of such a paradox in economics is a unique phenomenon that justifies the cruel joke addressed to representatives of this science: “Some economists know that they know nothing, and the rest do not even know this.”
The “weakness” of economic knowledge has always provoked various comparisons of economics with other sciences. For example, A. Marshall believed that economics has no close resemblance to any physical science; it is rather a broadly interpreted branch of biology. M. Blaug believes that in terms of the status of the falsifiability criterion, economic science is approximately halfway between psychoanalysis and nuclear physics. Quite often, economics is compared with meteorology, which deals with dynamic effects that are equally difficult to predict. J. Soros went even further, arguing that the very term “social science” is a false metaphor; in his opinion, economics is a kind of alchemy rather than science in the strict sense of the word.
Such comparisons are completely justified and, moreover, absolutely fair. But what underlies this distrust of economic knowledge?
The answer to the question lies in the specificity of the economic laws themselves. Thus, A. Marshall wrote that “there are no economic laws, in their own right accuracy comparable to the law of gravitation", they should be compared with the laws of the ebb and flow of the sea, and not with the simple and precise law of gravitation.
Here we must emphasize a fact that is very often overlooked. Almost all laws known to mankind are, to one degree or another, inaccurate. For example, every physicist “knows that even in laws that are considered well established, weak spots can arise, that new features can be discovered in a well-studied phenomenon.” Currently, many physical laws are known, which, as it turns out, are not fulfilled in reality. For example, the notorious law of gravity does not apply at a distance of one meter. R. Feynman also put forward the concept of the inaccuracy of physical laws and physical formulas. In his opinion, for a correct understanding of physical laws, one should understand that they are all, to some extent, approaching. Indeed, “as soon as you say anything about a field of experience with which you have not directly come into contact, you immediately lose confidence.” However, “in order for science not to turn into mere protocols of past experiments, we must put forward laws that extend into as yet unexplored areas.” And, as R. Feynman sarcastically noted, “there is nothing bad here, only because of this science turns out to be unreliable.”
To paraphrase R. Feynman, we can say that for a correct understanding of economic laws one should constantly keep in mind that they are all, to a large extent, approaching. Moreover, to a much greater extent than the laws of natural sciences, “for economics deals with the constantly changing, very subtle properties of human nature.” The immediate result of this state of affairs is extremely limited action economic laws. The latter are not universal theses that are true everywhere and always. On the contrary, they are fundamentally relative and make sense only under strictly defined conditions; going beyond these conditions means an automatic violation of the formulated laws. This fact was fully understood by the classics. political economy. Thus, A. Marshall wrote: “Economic laws are a generalization of trends that characterize human actions under certain conditions. They are hypothetical only in the sense that the laws of natural sciences are, because these laws also contain or imply the presence of certain conditions. But in economic It is much more difficult for science than for natural science to clearly formulate these conditions." Accordingly, in economics the priority is not to extend any relations to all cases, but to determine the “fields of application” of these relations, that is, cases when such extension is legal.
It should be added to the above that the boundaries of economic laws, as a rule, are immeasurably narrower than in the natural sciences. The consequence of this is that the system often goes beyond the boundaries of the laws under consideration, which predetermines their lower significance and applicability compared to the laws of the exact sciences. Nevertheless, economic laws cover the most probable, most typical states of the system, which determines their value. The difficulties associated with delineating the boundaries of the operation of economic laws give rise to the problem of distinguishing between correctness And applicability economic theory. And if the first depends on the logic of reasoning, then the second requires ensuring the conditions necessary for the implementation of the law.
To illustrate this, let us take as an example the law of demand: an increase in the price of a product leads to a decrease in demand for this product. In the vast majority of cases, the formulated law works flawlessly. Nevertheless, in economic practice there are cases when an increase in the price of a product is accompanied by an increase in demand for it (the Giffin effect). And although such goods are exceptions to the rule, they still exist and thereby greatly limit the scope of the law of demand. Determine General terms The implementation of this law is generally problematic.
MATHEMATIZATION OF ECONOMY; DIALECTICS OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
As stated above, economic laws, generally speaking, must be expressed in mathematical form. In this regard, apparently, it will not be erroneous to say that the main (but not the final!) the goal of modern economic science is to find quantitative relationships between economic variables, because only on this basis can one count on “conquering” the economic world with its inherent stochasticity and uncertainty. This fact leads to the conclusion that economics is more of a accurate, rather than to humanitarian disciplines. This same opinion is shared, in particular, by M. Allais, who points out that economic science now appears before us as the science of efficiency and, therefore, as a science quantitative. This thesis is confirmed by the abundance of figures, tables, models, diagrams, formulas, equations and theorems that fill modern economic literature. Thus, from the point of view of targets and the methodological tools used, economics is an exact, quantitative science.
At the same time, the economy still remains quality(humanitarian) science, because “the substance on which the economist works remains economic and social.” Such an amorphous and complex subject of research largely denies the high accuracy of the constructed economic models and calculations carried out. Thus, according to A. Gray, economic science differs from other sciences primarily in that there is no inevitable transition from less to greater reliability; there is no inexorable desire in it to go to the end, to the truth, which, once revealed, will be the truth for all time. This is primarily due to the fact that economics “deals with the constantly changing, very subtle properties of human nature.” To paraphrase A. Govinda, we can say the following: some unknown factor is always involved in the formation of economic realities, a guiding creative force that cannot be observed or subjected to scientific analysis, a principle that is not reducible to a mathematical formula or mechanical theory. As F. Perroux rightly said, “humanity is not exhausted by quantity.”
Thus, economics, using quantitative methods, works with social phenomena mainly at the qualitative level, which predetermines a peculiar dialectic of quantitative and qualitative. So, for example, it is obvious that life cannot be squeezed into mathematical formulas, but life can be reflected in mathematical formulas essence life. It is impossible to cram all the diversity of social existence, all its forms and colors into abstract formulas, but key aspects of social life can be included in formulas. Revealing this contradiction between quantitative and qualitative in economics, as well as the dialectic of their existence in mathematical constructions, A. Marshall warned: “... although a mathematical illustration of the interaction of a certain group of causes can be perfect in itself and absolutely accurate within its limitations, any attempt reflecting with a series of equations any complex problem of real life in its entirety or at least a significant part of it is doomed to failure, since many important aspects, especially those associated with the varied influence of the time factor, are not easy to express mathematically, so they will either have to be omitted completely, or compressed and trimmed in such a way that they become similar to conventional birds and animals of decorative art. This gives rise to a tendency to incorrectly reflect economic proportions... The economist must constantly remember this danger more than any other. However, avoiding it completely would mean limiting the use of major assets. scientific progress...» .
In this regard, economics, along with purely quantitative, mathematical tools, widely uses other means of analysis. Thus, in addition to strict models and mathematical theories built on their basis, economics contains in its arsenal a lot of qualitative concepts and theories that reveal the basic patterns of the functioning of economic mechanisms and provide some general scheme to analyze ongoing processes. Highly mathematized economic theories include, for example, the theory of profit sharing by M. Weizmann, the theory of time distribution by G. Becker, etc., and qualitative theories include the theory of reflexivity by J. Soros, the theory of multi-level economics by Yu. V. Yaremenko, etc. A priori, it is impossible to give unambiguous preference to one of the two named classes of theories, and therefore they are in a state of peaceful coexistence.
Use in economic research of various scientific instruments, generally speaking, presupposes their very complex hierarchy. So, for example, according to M. Allais, “if to understand the economy it would be necessary to choose between owning economic history or mastery of mathematics and statistics, then one should undoubtedly choose the first.” At the same time, the economist must always keep in mind the subordinate and limited nature of each of the scientific tools he uses. This is especially evident when using the mathematical apparatus, which for economic science is only an auxiliary means of expression and reasoning - nothing more.
It must be said that the mathematization of economics makes it very similar to physics. For example, the following analogy is typical: just as a direction branched out from general physics, which later received the name of mathematical physics, so from general economic theory came mathematical economics. There are also personnel parallels in these sciences. Thus, many modern theoretical physicists, being carried away by mathematics, are increasingly divorced from physics; Quantum field theory specialists often retrain as mathematicians. Similarly, many modern model economists are gradually moving into the caste of “pure” econometricians and statisticians. All this suggests that in the depths of economic science, sometimes unwanted overflows of form into content occur.
WEAK FORM OF ECONOMIC LAWS; QUALITATIVE CALCULUS IN ECONOMICS
One of the most important features Economic science is predominantly a weak form of many economic laws. As already mentioned, the highest form of any law is an equation, a specific formula. However, most economic laws are formulated in a “weak”, non-rigid form, that is, in the form inequalities. In addition, as infinitesimal analysis penetrates into economics, many economic laws are written in differential form.
The following are examples of inequalities in incremental (differential) form: the law of satisfaction public needs- demand (D) gives rise to supply (S), that is, dS/dD>0; J.-B. Say's law - supply gives rise to its own demand, that is, dD/dS>0; D. Hume's law - an increase in a country's exports (J) leads to an increase in its imports (I), that is, dI/dJ>0; law of demand - an increase in the price of a product (P) leads to a decrease in demand for this product, that is, dD/dP<0; закон предложения - рост цены товара ведет к росту предложения данного товара, то есть dS/dP>0; G. Gossen's law - marginal utility good (X) decreases as consumption of this good increases, that is, d 2 U/dX 2<0 (U - полезность экономического блага X); закон А.Вагнера - по мере возрастания объемов производства (Y) доля государственных расходов в валовом продукте (g) возрастает, то есть dg/dY>0; J.M. Keynes's law - as income (Y) increases, the increase in consumption expenditures (C) decreases, that is, d 2 C/dY 2<0; закон Дж.Хикса - по мере роста потребления товара x предельная норма замещения товара y товаром x уменьшается, то есть çd 2 y/dx 2 ç<0 и др.
The weakness of economic inequality laws is obvious. For example, the law of demand says that an increase in price leads to a decrease in the quantity demanded, but does not say exactly how much demand will decrease. Such a “weak”, clearly insufficient mathematization of economic laws is a natural consequence heterogeneity economic objects and incomplete information about them.
The weak form of economic laws underlies a whole direction of economic analysis, which, with the light hand of P. Samuelson, received the name “qualitative calculus”. In accordance with this direction, many quantitative studies are aimed not at obtaining specific numerical results, but at understanding the qualitative situation. In other words, economists in this case are faced with the task of not predicting quantities of one variable or another, and predictions directions its possible change as a result of various disturbing influences. Thus, it is formed fundamental understanding of the possible course of events without quantitative detailing of the overall picture. In this case, researchers are dealing only with signs derivatives, which are determined based on the marginal inequalities laws available in the arsenal of economic science. In works of this kind, the dialectic of quantitative and qualitative in economics is clearly demonstrated.
THE CONCEPT OF LAW AND RELATED CATEGORIES: REGULARITY, HYPOTHESIS, THEORY, MODEL, EFFECT
The formal vagueness of most economic laws leads to the fact that many of them are implied, but not formulated explicitly. As a result, many laws are contained in economic science in a hidden form, which greatly complicates their widespread use. This state of affairs provokes the argument that the very term “economic law” is misleading, because it by default assumes a high degree of accuracy, universality and even moral justice. In this regard, along with the concept of “law,” other categories appear in economics that claim a similar role. For example, K. R. McConnell and S. L. Brew use the terms "law", "principle", "model" and "theory" as synonyms. Representatives of the old German school operated mainly with certain “regularities”, and Antonelli considered it advisable to move from the concept of “law” to the concept of “effect”. Currently, there is a widespread opinion that there are no economic laws at all and there cannot be any because economic processes are too complex. In this case, the goal of economic science is declared to be the study of the behavioral properties of the economic system, based on certain fundamental “principles” and “hypotheses.”
In our opinion, equating all of these concepts with laws is unlawful and creates confusion in economic science itself. Since the difference between laws and principles has already been discussed above, we will focus only on the differences between other concepts.
First of all, about the lack of identity between by law And regularity. In our opinion, the law is a more universal thesis, bearing timeless character as opposed to a pattern that occurs only within a certain period of time. In addition, even within a certain time interval, a pattern is more often violated than a law. In this regard, the law is formulated on the basis of a fundamental analysis of economic mechanisms, while the pattern is established on the basis of empirical facts. Difference between by law And hypothesis lies in the degree of verification. So, a law is a certain fact, that is, a position whose truth has been tested by time and proven in practice; a hypothesis is an assumption, that is, a statement that needs additional verification.
Concepts theories And law You can't mix them at all. The dialectics of these categories can be considered in three planes. Firstly, the law is a rather narrow and content-limited thesis, while a theory is a collection of numerous theses interconnected into a logically consistent system. Secondly, any specific theory, as a rule, is based on many laws. This is due to the cause-and-effect breadth of the theory, which links many facts into a complex logical chain. The law is just a link in this chain. Thirdly, economic laws, due to their universality, can permeate many theories. This is due to the fact that any theory has a limited scope of application. Indeed, each theory is purposefully created to solve very specific problems and problems, and, as a rule, it is not suitable for explaining phenomena that lie beyond the original problem. Currently, the dominant opinion is that there is and cannot be any single economic theory; It’s just that each problem must have its own theory. The laws, on the contrary, apply to the overwhelming number of economic phenomena and remain valid in relation to many problem areas, which allows them to be used as the initial “building material” for the creation of various theories.
Now let’s look at how the concepts “ law" And " model", as well as the concepts of "model" and "theory". A model is a schematic reflection of a certain fragment of reality. A theory is always based on one or more models, and in this sense, a theory is broader than a model. In this case, the model acts as the primary building material for the theory, and therefore the same model can be used in different theories. In addition, the theory assumes meaningful conclusions and recommendations, and the model serves only as a tool for obtaining these conclusions. The relationship between the law and the model is somewhat more complex. For example, the model itself can serve as a source for the formulation of new laws. On the other hand, when analyzing a model, already known laws can be used, which allows one to draw important and interesting conclusions about the functioning of the economic system. Sometimes, at the model construction stage, certain laws can be used as initial postulates. Strictly speaking, any highly formalized model itself reflects a certain law in accordance with which the modeled system functions. However, a law of such a high degree of abstraction, as a rule, turns out to be useless for understanding reality, and therefore a deeper analysis of the model is carried out and more specific conclusions and laws are formulated.
Regarding the connection between the concepts “ law" And " Effect“We can say that there is also no identity here. In general, the concept of effect is much broader than the concept of law. We can say that laws indicate typical effects that are predominantly mandatory. At the same time, in economics quite often various anomalous effects are considered, which arise quite rarely, in contrast to those effects that are fixed by economic laws.
Thus, economic science consists of a vast set of laws, hypotheses, principles, patterns, models, theories and effects that are intertwined in complex ways. Thus, various theories, laws and models can be used to explain some complex effects; the action of various principles and effects can lead to the emergence of specific patterns; the use of certain hypotheses and models leads to the creation of economic theories, etc. This section of the problem complements the above ideas about the structure and structure of economic science.
ABSENCE OF WORLD CONSTANTS IN ECONOMIC SCIENCE
The fact of the absence of certain universal economic constants in economic science is closely related to the weak form of economic laws. This fact is key to understanding the methodological difficulties that economists face. So, for example, in order for any law to acquire practical significance, it must be expressed in a strong form (that is, in the form of equality), which, as a rule, presupposes the presence of certain coefficients of proportionality. If these coefficients are constants, then the law expressed with their help acquires a timeless meaning and can be applied to any period of time. These are the laws that are characteristic of the natural sciences and, above all, of physics. For example, in quantum mechanics, the Planck, Rydberg, fine structure, screening, etc. constants appear as universal physical constants; in astrophysics - Oort, Boltzmann, Roche, Hubble, Lyapunov constants, gravitation, speed of light, etc.
In economics, such universal determinants, which D. Shimon successfully called “world constants,” simply do not exist. However, it is the world constants that cement scientific theories; without them, there is simply nothing to “catch onto” during analytical constructions and forecast calculations. As J. Soros rightly noted, “without constants there is no tendency towards equilibrium.” As a result of this state of affairs, the typical course of economic events follows an irregular boom-bust pattern. It is quite obvious that stable prediction of such fluctuations is impossible.
The absence of global economic constants is based on the fact that, unlike inanimate nature, which is constant in its manifestations, man and society do not have stable laws of behavior. In the latter case, we are faced with fundamental limitations in the use of mathematical apparatus to describe socio-economic processes. In fact, mathematics is a highly effective means of studying relatively primitive worlds (mechanical, physical, chemical); highly complex processes occurring in economic systems are difficult to mathematize. For this reason, many even purely theoretical studies of economic patterns are carried out using simulation (behavioral) models based on the cybernetic concept of large systems.
However, again one should not think that economics is completely different from the natural sciences. For example, in astrophysics the Hubble constant does not have an exact value; its value is in a certain interval, but it is not yet possible to perform a point identification of this constant. In economics, the specified “uncertainty interval” for the corresponding constants simply expands very much.
ECONOMIC (LOGICAL) AND ECONOMETRIC (STATISTICAL) LAWS
The problems of weak form of economic laws and the absence of world constants in practice are partially resolved by constructing econometric dependencies. However, the latter are not universal in nature and act only for a limited period of time. In this case, the dialectic of economic and econometric laws is manifested, which, generally speaking, should not be identified. Thus, according to L. Stoleru, “an econometric law is, first of all, a law based on correlations of the past, while an economic law is a law based on reflections on the behavior of economic units.” A similar position is taken by R. Barr, who calls economic laws logical, because they follow from qualitative (abstract) analysis, and econometric - statistical, because they are the result quantitative (empirical) analysis
Of course, the distinction made between the two types of laws is somewhat arbitrary, since there is a constant connection between theoretical reflections and facts. Let us only emphasize that the division of laws into economic (logical) and econometric (statistical) is based on the concepts causality And correlations. Thus, if the econometric law records correlations between phenomena and shows their systemic interdependence, which can be temporary and random, then the economic law reveals deep cause-and-effect relationships. At the same time, economic and econometric laws complement each other. The dialectics of this process are approximately as follows.
Due to their weak form, most economic laws require numerical clarification. This is achieved by obtaining the corresponding econometric dependencies, which include specific coefficients that make it possible to compensate for the absence of world constants and thereby fill in the quantitative “windows” of economic laws, transferring them from a weak form (the form of inequalities) to a strong one (the form of equalities). For example, the economic law of demand has the form: dD/dP<0, то есть рост цены ведет к падению спроса. Чтобы уточнить, насколько сильно влияет цена на объем спроса на основе данных ретроспективных рядов можно построить простейшую эконометрическую зависимость: D=bP+a. Теперь экономический закон спроса запишется в следующем эконометрическом виде: dD/dP=b. Параметр b в данном уравнении играет роль мировой константы. Таким образом, исходный экономический закон на определенном временном интервале конкретизируется эконометрическим законом, что позволяет проводить прикладные расчеты.
On the other hand, in practice there is always a need to limit studies of correlations, knowing in advance the interdependent quantities. Here economic laws come into play, allowing us to identify possible connections between variables, so all that remains is to check valid connection by obtaining a satisfactory degree of correlation. Thus, economic laws allow you to save effort, time and other resources when conducting specific research.
ASYMMETRY OF ECONOMIC DEPENDENCIES
Effective mathematization of the economy, among other things, is greatly complicated by the presence of asymmetry in many functional dependencies. Let us explain this with a simple example. The demand curve D=D(P), which establishes the dependence of demand on price, in the vast majority of cases is characterized by a negative slope due to the law of demand, that is, dD/dP<0. Чисто формально цена может быть представлена функцией, обратной к функции спроса - P=P(D). В этом случае при возрастании спроса на товар цена на него должна уменьшаться, то есть dP/dD<0. Однако в реальности имеет место прямо противоположная ситуация: рост спроса ведет к росту цены, то есть dP/dD>0. Thus, we have arrived at a substantive contradiction. Thus, most economic dependencies “work” only in one direction, reflecting either a direct or inverse relationship between economic variables. It is clear that a primitive “frontal attack” of economics from mathematics is possible only in exceptional cases.
Another fact that complicates the use of formal methods in economics is the existence of a hysteresis effect in many phenomena. Here the problem arises even within a single functional dependency. For example, the price curve P=P(D) in this case seems to “bifurcate”: one of its trajectory shows the change in prices with growing demand, and the other with falling demand. This kind of “hysteretic” asymmetry of economic dependencies further limits the thoughtless, mechanistic use of mathematics for modeling complex socio-economic processes.
UNVERIFIABILITY OF MANY ECONOMIC VARIABLES
One of the most “terrible” problems of economic science is the either complete or partial unverifiability of many fundamental economic variables and, as a consequence, basic laws. For example, modern economic analysis actively operates with such “foggy” categories as: demand, utility of goods, burden of labor, inflation expectations, preferences, fundamental conditions, information, knowledge, final goods, human capital, level of education, etc. For all their apparent intelligibility and even obviousness, the listed concepts belong either to the category of directly unobservable or to the category of fundamentally uncomputable. For example, how to quantify the usefulness of a particular good? How to measure the amount of useful information? Even the volume of demand is problematic to calculate for a situation where demand in the market exceeds supply. In this case, demand acts as some abstract needs that were unsatisfied.
But if, for example, we cannot evaluate the utility of some good, then how can we find out the truth of G. Gossen’s law, which deals with its marginal utility? If we cannot calculate the quantity demanded, then how can we check the validity of the law of demand? Of course, in practice various indirect assessment methods are used, but their legitimacy always remains in doubt, since in some cases they do not even provide an approximate assessment of the true state of affairs. In addition, it is quite difficult to verify analytical constructions of a microeconomic nature, since most of the available statistical information is macroeconomic and aggregate.
The problem of the unverifiability of many economic variables does not mean that they should be excluded from the arsenal of economic science. In this case, all economic knowledge would automatically turn into a formless mass of empirical facts, since it is these poorly verifiable indicators that give conceptual integrity to all economic constructs. As K. Boulding aptly noted, “a theory without facts may be empty, but facts without a theory are meaningless.” In order to maintain integrity and meaningfulness, modern economic science, along with well-measurable variables and parameters, is forced to use non-verifiable characteristics.
However, one should not think that the economic categories listed above are somehow particularly speculative and abstract. In our opinion, there is a certain analogy between utility in economics and energy in physics, as well as between demand in economic theory and the wave y-function in quantum mechanics. Despite the fact that these quantities cannot be directly measured, they still objectively exist and help in scientific research. However, unlike natural sciences, social sciences lack the possibility of conducting a controlled experiment. As a result of this, in order to test and finally discard any theory, economists simply need much more facts than, for example, physicists.
One of the features of economic science is the subjective and ideological coloring of the practical recommendations arising from it. In this regard, the comparison made by R. Carson is appropriate. In his opinion, economists are usually seen as either doctors or auto mechanics. Doctors study medicine to cure diseases and promote human health; Auto mechanics must be able to determine the cause of mechanical failure and repair cars. Accordingly, economists study economics and should know how to treat or fix it - no more and no less. However, the recommendations of economists, “even if made with the utmost impartiality in assessing the available data, may ultimately be interpreted differently either from the point of view of their own or the prevailing worldview.” The last point is especially important, since virtually every economist has his own view of the world, his own “personal equation”.
In other words, economic theory is, in the words of R. Barr, a “tool box.” Anyone can have a box like this, but everyone can use it differently. Likewise, economics does not provide ready-made conclusions, being just a method, a way that allows you to draw correct conclusions from facts.
In general, it can be stated that “economics, as the study of human behavior and beliefs, cannot avoid biased judgments”; it is “a discipline that cannot be free of ideology.” Simply put, the main problem arises when, in the figurative expression of S. Lem, a sublime idea comes into contact with rough reality. Thus, in practice, economics is no longer so much a science as an art, because it is based on subjective judgments rather than formal evidence. One might even say that the objectivity of economics ends at the decision-making stage; Then the sphere of the subjective begins.
ONTOLOGICAL SELF-VALUE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE
The weakness of economic laws discussed above does not allow accurate forecasts. In addition, economic science has another feature that greatly limits its predictive capabilities. In this case, we are talking about thinking, which, according to J. Soros, plays a dual role. On the one hand, people strive to understand the situation in which they participate; on the other hand, their understanding serves as the basis for making decisions that influence the course of events. These two roles constantly interfere with each other. In fact, this means that the thinking of the participants in the events introduces uncertainty into the subject of research.
If we add to the above the fact of the subjectivity of all practical recommendations arising from economic theory, then the question involuntarily arises about the value of economic science. Since economic science does not allow us to predict future events and does not give unambiguous recommendations, then perhaps it has no value at all?
Apparently, E. Leroy can be considered the founder of scientific pragmatism, who argued that science is only a rule of action. From here the understanding of the value of science logically follows: “either science does not provide the opportunity to foresee, in which case it is devoid of value as a rule of action; or it allows one to foresee (in a more or less imperfect way), and then it is not without value as a means to knowledge.” P. Bragg also shared a similar opinion: “science is reason in action.” In relation to economics, this position was expressed by M. Friedman in 1953: the significance of economic theory is determined solely by the accuracy of its predictions. Finally, “scientific pragmatism” was transferred to economic science in 1956 by L. Rodgin, according to which the objective significance of economic theory lies in its recommendations for practical policy.
The main negative of these views is that thanks to them, the criterion of the value of scientific doctrines begins to replace the final goal of economic science, which is fundamentally wrong. As A. Poincaré rightly noted, action is not the goal of science, but rather the opposite: knowledge is the goal, action is the means. There is also a very definite methodological danger in cultivating “scientific pragmatism.” The fact is that “science created exclusively for applied purposes is impossible; truths are fruitful only when there is an internal connection between them. If you look only for those truths from which you can expect immediate results, then the connecting links slip away and the chain falls apart.”
In other words, the absence of forecasting and management applications of economic science does not at all negate its value. For example, many economic theories are devoid of specific empirical content and serve only to streamlining information. There is also a number of important economic theses and theorems that, while identifying important points in economic behavior, still do not allow it to be directly predicted. In this case, E. Mach’s statement that the role of science is fully applicable saving thoughts, just as a machine creates an economy of force. In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the famous aphorism of F. Knight: “The most harmful thing is not ignorance at all, but knowledge of a damn lot of things that are actually wrong.”
Speaking about the role of economic science, P. Heine rightly noted that “economists know how different things are related to each other.” J. Hicks, speaking against primitive empiricism in economics, also emphasized the “inherent value” of theoretical constructs and the importance of the analysis of cause-and-effect relationships as such. According to M. Blaug, the true significance of economic science lies primarily in the fact that the functioning of the economic system is now understood much better than ever before. Thus, the main value of economic science is the possibility correct understanding economic reality, because, as the famous aphorism says, “the best practice is a good theory.”
Indeed, one should not think that the purely cognitive, ontological aspect of economic science is in no way connected with economic practice. In this regard, the views of M. Allais look very fresh and relevant, who, speaking about such an abstract concept as a competitive economy, believed that the latter is not even an image of reality; she happens to be reference system, which helps us understand to what extent the society where we live does not use its capabilities. Thus, even the most abstract theoretical constructions of economic science sometimes contribute to correct orientation in understanding practical problems.
ECONOMIC THEORY AS THE BASIS OF SOCIAL FORECASTS AND MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
However, the role of economic science is by no means limited to the ontological potential it contains. One can, in particular, talk about its special place in comparison with other social sciences for predicting social phenomena. The fact is that quite often many sciences consider alternative ways of developing the same process in their own ways. At the same time, they evaluate probability the occurrence of certain events. However, events that are quite probable from the standpoint of one of the sciences turn out to be completely impossible from the standpoint of others. Following the approach of V. Leontiev, regions possible The development of the process from the point of view of individual sciences can be geometrically depicted by squares of various areas. Their mutual arrangement will have nested a structure similar to the one shown in Fig. 1. In accordance with this approach, the value of economic science lies in the fact that the area of possible developments it outlines is, as a rule, much narrower than for other sciences. This means that the economy has a greater “sifting potential” for events and thus allows for a rather narrow range of possible strategies for the development of the system. Thus, economic forecasts are more realistic, which allows them to play a dominant role in social forecasting.
The ability of the economy to determine what is possible and desirable (that is, the most effective) through development also predetermines its capabilities in terms of forming practical recommendations in terms of management decisions. In this sense, the development of economic science provides a certain guarantee against gross economic mistakes and miscalculations. “By describing the economic laws that dominate the use and formation of resources in a given period of time, identifying the boundaries created by the current situation for the future, we can step by step outline the area of possible development paths. Economic theory encourages the exclusion from these options of some development strategies that would lead to a waste of resources." Thus, economics allows, on the one hand, to construct the most realistic, easily foreseeable forecast scenarios, and on the other hand, to choose the most rational one among them.
Of course, making forecasts and choosing optimal development paths cannot be completely formalized. These procedures are typically a complex, iterative, informal process. However, using the entire arsenal of economic science allows you to gradually go through all the stages of this process and obtain the desired solution.
SOCIAL ROLE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE
Speaking about the social role of economics, we can recall the statement of J.M. Keynes about the impact of economic ideas on the process of making political decisions: “Practices who sincerely believe in their intellectual independence are, in fact, usually slaves to the ideas of some dead economist.” This thesis was perfectly complemented by E.F. Heckscher: “economic policy is determined not so much by economic reality as by ideas about this reality in people’s heads.” This clearly shows the danger that incorrect economic theories and erring famous economists can pose. “A physicist who is only a physicist can still be a first-class physicist and a most valuable member of society. However, no one can be a great economist by being only an economist. And I cannot resist adding: an economist who is just an economist is more likely to become a boring (if not dangerous) person.”
Thus, both correct and erroneous economic theories play a huge role in the construction and restructuring of a particular economic system. Just as biological evolution occurs under the influence of genetic mutations, so, according to J. Soros, historical processes are formed by incorrect concepts and mistakes of their participants.
However, in addition to the simplest practical errors due to the use of incorrect economic doctrines, the problem of applying economic theory is seriously complicated by the following two facts.
Firstly, there is a variety of optimal management decisions. This means that most practical economic problems can be successfully solved in various ways, among which it is very difficult to choose one - the best one. The following simple analogy is appropriate here. A quadratic equation has two roots; in a cubic equation the number of solutions increases to three. As the degree of an algebraic equation further increases, there is a corresponding increase in the number of its roots. At the same time, the roots of the equations under consideration are absolutely “equal” and none of them can be given preference based on consideration of the roots themselves. Likewise, in the process of making management decisions, there are many different ways to achieve the goal. This fact is reflected in economic science in such a concept as Pareto optimality.
Secondly, the effectiveness of a particular decision often depends not on how correct this decision is, but on how it is implemented. Quite often, wrong decisions lead to positive results, while correct strategies end in complete fiasco. “In the field of natural phenomena, the scientific method is effective only if the correct theory is used; but in the field of social, political and economic issues, incorrect theories can also be effective. Although alchemy as a natural science has failed, social science as alchemy can succeed." Thus, the effectiveness of economic decisions depends to a certain extent on the volitional efforts of the individual who carry them out, as well as on the specific forms and mechanisms of their implementation.
ECONOMY AND THE PROBLEM OF INTERACTION OF SCIENCES; ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM
One of the features of economic science is its “borderline” nature. In fact, none of the definitions of economic science allows us to absolutely clearly outline its boundaries and “radius of action.” Indeed, economics is organically intertwined with such sciences as history, political science, psychology, sociology, biology, geography, technology, law and philosophy. Schematically, this process can be represented by the “rose of sciences”, in the center of which is economics (Fig. 2). Methodologically, this means that the economist must constantly abstract from secondary (non-economic) aspects of the reality being studied, which are within the competence of other sciences. However, it is impossible to achieve a satisfactory understanding of social life if you do not have a synthetic picture that allows you to introduce the results obtained in various fields of knowledge into a unified framework. Moreover, according to M. Allais, “it is on the path of synthesis that social sciences can achieve the greatest success today.”
There is no doubt that the role of that synthetic social “superscience”, which accumulates all the achievements of private social sciences, is played more and more clearly by economics. This trend towards the globalization of science objectively leads to an increasing “capture” of “foreign” territories by the economy. This process in the development of economic science even received a special name - “economic imperialism”. Not only political science, sociology, history and law, but even biology and science have already been “colonized” by economists. At the same time, economic science is increasingly acquiring a planetary-cosmological overtones. For example, the modern economy of world economic relations is forced to take into account the modern theory of mutagenesis, according to which each new ethnic group arises as a result of a sudden change in the gene pool of living beings, occurring under the influence of external conditions in a certain place and at a certain time. In particular, L.N. Gumilyov’s theory of passionarity successfully explains the numerous shifts that have taken place in the world economy. In this case, it is extremely important that “a passionary push, if it occurs, never affects one country, one ethnic group. As a global, planetary phenomenon, the explosion of ethnogenesis covers extended narrow stripes on the earth's surface, passing through different regions inhabited by different peoples. On these strips stretching for thousands of kilometers, the otnogenesis of different peoples begins simultaneously.” On the other hand, according to L.N. Gumilyov, “without taking into account the factor of international trade, the history of not only Khazaria, but the whole world is incomprehensible.” The above example well illustrates, on the one hand, the encyclopedic nature of modern economics, and on the other, its synthesizing role, manifested in the “gluing” of various social sciences into a single whole.
Recently, economics has even been “biting into” anthropology and physiology. For example, the problem of time distribution between leisure, work and sleep falls within the scope of economic analysis. Current research suggests that sleep time is susceptible to income and substitution effects. Moreover, in the time triad “work-leisure-sleep” the main factor is precisely working hours, which gradually subordinate the remaining components of the daily time budget of individuals to the logic of their economic functioning (efficiency, utility, productivity).
An interesting section of economic analysis is G. Becker’s theory of time distribution, which reveals the fundamental properties of time formation (in the sense of time organization) in social systems. Methods and forms of mastering time play a huge role in the economic development of all countries and peoples. It is even believed that the so-called “temporal wars” (changes in ideas about space and time) determine the course of economic events and the politics of tomorrow. For example, economic studies of time flows and their perception by individuals make it possible to quite fully and subtly explain a number of complex economic phenomena. Thus, by studying such problems, economic science enriches our understanding of the essence and properties of time, which was originally considered the prerogative of physicists and philosophers.
Guided in its progress by the idea that in order to achieve a satisfactory explanation of reality, all methods of scientific knowledge must be used, economic analysis in methodological terms turns out to be closely connected with mathematics, statistics, cybernetics, and even, paradoxically, with physics. It would not be a mistake to say that in terms of the degree of scientific “saturation” and methodological diversity, economics is the undisputed leader among all sciences. In this regard, the works of M. Allais attract attention. By his own admission, the search for the fundamental factors underlying the fluctuations of the "precipitates" of the most proven economic models led him to the understanding of the fact that all fluctuations in natural and social phenomena stem from the effect of resonance, mainly from the influence of countless vibrations that permeate the world we inhabit. space and whose presence today is a reliable fact. This, it turns out, can largely explain the structure of fluctuations in stock exchange quotations, which is incomprehensible at first glance. Such an interpretation of socio-economic effects based on the “fine” structure of the Universe is truly cosmological in nature and points to the emerging synthesis of social and natural sciences in general and economics and physics in particular.
SOCIAL PORTRAIT OF A MODERN ECONOMIST SCIENTIST
The consequence of the large-scale expansion of economics into other sciences is its expansion both in breadth and depth. This fact places special demands on the professional qualifications of an economist. J.M. Keynes once gave a classic portrait of an economist: “Talented or simply competent economists are the rarest breed. The subject is easy, but those who succeed in it are few. The paradox finds its explanation in the fact that an economic scientist must have a rare combination of talents. He must reach a level of excellence in several different directions and possess abilities that are rarely combined together. He must be a mathematician, a historian, a statesman, a philosopher... He must understand the language of symbols and express his thoughts in clear terms. He must consider the particular from the point of view of the general and approach the abstract and the concrete in the same movement. He must study the present in the light of the past, with the future in mind. No part in the nature of man and his institutions should be alien to him. He must certainly strive for a practical and completely disinterested goal: to be detached and incorruptible, like an artist, but sometimes to be as practical as a politician.”
Complementing this detailed description with the “ethnic” characteristics of the ideal scientist, M. Allais advocated for the training of economists “with qualities inherent in different nations: attention to the facts of the Anglo-Saxons, the erudition of the Germans, the logic of the Latins.”
Based on the above, a comparison of an economist with a kind of tightrope walker, masterfully juggling all possible scientific instruments and at the same time not losing the main goal and logical thread of his reasoning, suggests itself. In this regard, it can be stated that one of the most essential features of an economist is an internal, one might say, innate sense of proportion. Thus, the ideal economist, using the terminology of K. Castaneda, must be the owner of the four magical qualities of a true stalker: ruthlessness, dexterity, patience and gentleness. Here we mean the following: ruthlessness in stating facts, dexterity in handling any scientific methods, patience in constructing logical schemes and selecting facts, gentleness towards one’s opponents. The last fact is especially important, since all economic truths are very relative and insisting on them means making a mistake, because, according to the apt remark of A. Govinda, “a dead truth is no better than a lie, because it causes inertia, the most difficult to catch form of ignorance.”
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