Qualitative changes in the development of production, growth in production volumes and its quality are not possible without deep transformations in the entire economic mechanism, one of the most important links of which is the regulation of income and wages. In a market economy, there are objective and subjective factors that must be taken into account when organizing wages at enterprises.
The main objective market factors include cost work force, prices for means of labor and finished products, the sales market for goods and its conditions, the mechanism of competition, profit, etc. Such factors influence wages regardless of the state and the enterprises themselves. When organizing wages, the main role belongs to objective factors; managers only can and must take them into account.
Subjective factors include regulation by the state, by the enterprises themselves, and by trade unions.
It is known that when market economy the state, although in a significantly narrowed form, retains its regulatory function. This function extends to the area of income and wages. Regulation of income and wages at the macroeconomic level takes place in many countries with developed market economies and is an integral part of socio-economic policy. The state cannot refuse to regulate income and wages if market mechanisms of self-regulation are not established, if most enterprises do not have a real owner interested in the restructuring and development of production. In addition, the transition from a centralized problem solving system social sphere to a market one cannot happen automatically and spontaneously, since transformations affect the deep, essential elements of the system.
Let us highlight the following most essential goals state concept of income. The priority direction in income policy should be to increase real wages, for which it is necessary to index them, reduce debt and make payments on it a priority, and adopt laws on compensation for damages in case of non-payment of wages. It is necessary to accelerate the process of bringing the minimum wage closer to the average cost of living. To do this, it is necessary to free the minimum wage from the functions of regulating social transfers, since this restrains its increase, since it is associated with significant budget expenses.
To ensure a real increase in income, it is necessary to strengthen the distinction between the taxation of wages and business income, establishing a more preferential procedure for hired workers and their equivalents (the benefit consists of a lower starting tax and less progressive rates). Should be strengthened financial base pensions by increasing the nominal wage, deductions from which are formed Pension Fund. Legislatively, organizationally and economically, it is necessary to form a mechanism for regulating the income of the population, taking into account the territorial characteristics of life.
The policy of state regulation of income today contradicts financial stabilization, since it is carried out by reducing government payments for all items of social expenditures of the state budget.
The main functions related to the state’s influence on the income of the population have also undergone changes. These changes are manifested, first of all, in the reorientation of administrative and command functions to social protective ones, which are aimed at mitigating the negative consequences of the transition economy. Among priority areas functional changes can be identified such as:
- o providing conditions for earning income and creating equal opportunities in the exercise of rights to a share in public welfare through fair distribution of income;
- o implementation social programs structural reorientation of the economy aimed at housing construction, education, healthcare, etc., as well as supporting industries that provide social development society;
- o reduction of unwanted, caused transition period, differences in the receipt and distribution of income;
- o pursuing a reasonable policy of combining taxation with social support(benefits for producers of life support equipment, small businesses, encouragement of charity, transport payments, subsidies, etc.).
The state regulatory impact on the income of the population consists of implementing measures aimed at preventing negative social consequences associated with the formation of a market mechanism. Forms of government regulation consist of material, institutional and conceptual components.
Material the basis for state regulation of income depends on the volume of national production and the size of the share that is redistributed centrally through the state budget. Institutional the basis is related to the organization of the redistribution process and the activities of relevant institutions. Conceptual relies on the use of a particular theory in government social policy.
The state regulatory mechanism is quite complex and includes primary distribution (wages, other primary incomes of the population and enterprises); redistribution through the state budget, tax and transfer systems; final distribution is through operations and services to the public.
During the primary state distribution of income, an upper limit is set for the increase in nominal wages in public sector. Economic significance regulation of wages is determined by the fact that its change affects aggregate demand and production costs. Primary income regulation is used by the state both to increase the competitiveness of national products, encourage investment, and to curb wage growth and inflation.
Redistribution of income is carried out through the state budget, consists of differentiated taxation of various groups, recipients of income and social payments to the population.
By organizing budgetary redistribution of income, the state solves several problems: increasing the incomes of the poor, creating conditions for normal reproduction of the labor force, easing social tension.
The following economic, legislative, conciliatory, and administrative methods can be distinguished.
TO economic methods include the determination of minimum wages, tax policy, regulation of wages for employees of public sector organizations and civil servants, employment, etc.
The growth of the minimum wage depends on the economic opportunities that have developed in society at a certain stage. If this factor is not taken into account, this may lead to delays in payment of wages to employees, a budget deficit, etc. At the same time, the minimum wage should be determined taking into account Money, which are necessary for the normal physical reproduction of the labor force, i.e. living wage, which in turn depends on monetary policy states.
Tax revenues to the budget are ensured by tax policy; without this, it is impossible to organize the redistribution of income and establish effective stimulation of economic growth. For example, providing tax benefits helps small businesses increase employment, gives them a chance to survive and take their place in the market.
When regulating wages in the public sector, the state proceeds from its economic capabilities. Through the efforts of this sphere, the human potential of any society is formed. The role of this area in promoting health and leisure is great. By increasing the costs of maintaining this area, the state ensures the social orientation of the economy towards the development of the individual. There is also Feedback: more complex, creative work creates a larger mass of output per unit of time, which leads to economic growth.
Legislative methods. An important place in income regulation is occupied by the development of its legislative and regulatory framework, which is the starting point of the entire regulatory process. Standards are used to calculate standard consumer budgets, working time standards - to determine working hours, the duration of vacations at enterprises, and create safe working conditions; tax rates - for withholding income tax, taxes from legal entities(including social, etc.)
For regulating the income and quality of life of the population, the most significant are the Constitution of the Russian Federation (Basic Law), Civil Code RF, Labor Code of the Russian Federation, laws on economic reform, on employment, decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation (on increasing the minimum wage, legal support for the collective bargaining system, social security and insurance, social guarantees, etc.).
Administrative methods. They are not associated with the creation of an additional material incentive or the risk of economic (financial) damage, are based on the power of power and include measures of prohibition, permission or coercion.
With the transition to a market economy, some previous administrative measures were retained, but new ones also appeared: direct state control over monopoly markets; development of standards, monitoring their compliance; education and maintenance of minimum acceptable parameters of life of the population, below which there is poverty; protecting the interests of the nation - export licensing or government control over imports.
Conciliation methods. In many countries, these methods are widely used and are considered the most economical and “bloodless”. Social partnership is the coordination of actions of the government, entrepreneurs and employees on the dynamics of wages and social transfers.
The idea of social partnership developed in the 1950s. L. Erhard, R. Balog and others, proceeds from the need for coordination public interest, represented on the one hand by trade unions of hired workers and on the other by associations of entrepreneurs for the sake of successful economic development countries. It involves the conclusion of a “social contract” in the field of economic and social policy.
Agreements at various levels (in the General - at the federal level, in sectoral and regional tariff agreements - at the sectoral and territorial levels, in collective agreements - at enterprises) reflect questions about the size of the minimum wage, tariff rates, social benefits, and the procedure for indexing income , working hours, compensation for harm, guarantees of labor rights, labor protection, housing, etc.
The collective bargaining system is effective form regulation of wages of hired workers. Its development in Russia is hampered by two factors:
- 1) depreciation of labor, as a result of which wage cannot perform its reproductive function;
- 2) unjustified differentiation of wages by categories of workers at enterprises of the same industry, territory, as well as by individual industries and regions.
Each method has at its disposal direct and indirect measures of influence. Measures of direct government intervention include: state guarantee of a minimum wage in its territory, regulation of wages in the public sector, establishment of a system of regional coefficients, public investment, subsidizing programs to improve production efficiency, tax exemption, direct administration requiring the allocation of a quota of workers places for certain groups of the population, organizing retraining of workers and allocating a certain number of workers to carry out social work necessary work etc.
Indirect methods of influence include preferential taxation low-income groups of the population; selectivity of the procedure for distributing free goods.
Standard of living - social economic category, which determines the achieved level of consumption and accumulation of material and spiritual goods in quantitative assessment and in comparison with established standards of consumption and accumulation of goods in countries with a high level of development of productive forces and national standards of consumption and accumulation of goods used in managing socio-economic processes in society.
We can distinguish four levels of living of the population: prosperity (use of benefits that ensure comprehensive human development); normal level (rational consumption according to scientifically based standards, providing a person with the restoration of his physical and intellectual strength); poverty (consumption of goods at the level of maintaining working capacity as the lowest limit of reproduction of the labor force); poverty (the minimum acceptable set of goods and services according to biological criteria, the consumption of which only allows maintaining human viability).
The most important components of the standard of living are the income of the population and its social security, its consumption of material goods and services, and free time.
The concept of quality of life is closely related to the concept of standard of living, but still they are not the same thing. Quality of life is a concept widely used by various social sciences, covering the most diverse (economic, political, social, cultural, environmental, etc.) living conditions of people and characterizing its qualitative side in contrast to quantitative, level indicators, standards. The quality of life is characterized primarily by a number of concepts such as the environment, human health, urbanization of the population, etc.
The concepts of level and quality of life cannot be characterized by just a few indicators; this requires a system of indicators covering all possible aspects of the population’s life. This is explained by the variety of tasks facing statistics in the field of studying living standards. The most important of them include:
studying the level and dynamics of income of various social groups regional population;
analysis of the dynamics and structure of final consumption of the population as in in value terms, and from its natural and material content;
study of the non-productive part of savings, reflecting the increase in material goods of consumer value;
characterization of the level and structure of population expenses with identification of mandatory and voluntary payments and consumer expenses;
study of the population's consumption of the most important consumer goods, as well as the population's provision of durable property;
studying living conditions population;
characteristics of the population's consumption of non-productive services (education, healthcare, culture, physical education and sports, tourism and recreation, etc.);
studying the working conditions of workers (employment and unemployment, length of the working week, labor protection, industrial injuries), as well as the use of non-working (free) time;
analysis of the size and dynamics of savings of the population;
analysis of some demographic indicators, directly related to living standards (infant and general mortality, fertility, etc.).
To solve these problems, it is necessary to analyze various aspects of living standards using interrelated and complementary indicators of living standards, income, expenses and consumption of the population, the provision of housing and durable consumer goods, cash savings of the population, working and leisure conditions, environmental situation in human habitats, demographic and other indicators.
The concept of "standard of living" covers both material and spiritual, and cultural sphere life of society. The standard of living is formed under the influence of numerous factors: historical, natural, geographical, national, etc. However, the determining factor is material production, the very method of production of material goods and services and the specific laws and relationships inherent in it. Thus, the category “standard of living” is based on the degree of material security of people along with the satisfaction of material, cultural and spiritual needs.
The most important indicators, characterizing the standard of living of the population are its income and its purchasing power by the population, a collection of people living in a certain territory and united by a common budget.
When studying the income of the population, socio-economic indicators are used, which are formed on the basis of statistical data characterizing the volume, composition, main directions of use and distribution of income of the population, as well as, with the involvement
other data reflecting the final result of economic and social policies in areas affecting various aspects of the well-being of the population. Overall volume income of the population is characterized by indicators of its nominal and real income.
Nominal income represents the entire amount of money and natural income received by the population in the form of wages, public consumption funds and financial system.
In the form of wages for work, the population receives:
salary;
bonuses from the material incentive fund;
business trips;
cash and in-kind income from personal subsidiary plots;
In the form of current transfers:
scholarships;
vacation pay, discounted vouchers, etc.
Nominal incomes consist of cash and natural incomes. Cash income includes wages in cash and cash payments from public consumption funds in the form of pensions, benefits, scholarships, as well as other types cash income population, which are most fully represented in the Balance of Cash Income. The population's income in kind consists of material costs in institutions serving the population and income from personal subsidiary plots. For a single family, all these incomes form its total income.
Real income of the population represents the amount of material goods directly used by the population (for consumption and accumulation) to satisfy their personal needs, in which monetary and natural incomes received in the form of wages, payments from public consumption funds and other income of the population are realized.
To calculate real income indicators, indicators of individual and final income of the population are used. At the same time, individual means the entire amount of monetary and natural income received in the form of wages, payments from public consumption funds, income from personal subsidiary plots and other income of the population. Final income is equal to individual income minus payments to the budget, cash savings, voluntary contributions, payment for services, but with the addition of the cost of material costs of cultural institutions and organizations serving the population. Thus, the amount of final income corresponds to the part of national income that goes to the population for the consumption and accumulation of material goods, as well as for the consumption of services.
First of all, it should be noted that the concept of income (paradoxically) is a complex economic category, which was once recognized by one of the world authorities in this field, the famous English economist J. Hicks. And according to the new SNA, all income indicators are based on the concept he founded in his work “Cost and Capital”:
income should be defined as maximum amount, which can be spent on consumption over a certain period and at the same time retain at the end of this period the capital that was at the beginning. In the Republic of Kazakhstan, during the transition from a planned economy to a market economy, the economic content of traditional forms of distribution of income and expenses of the population changed and led to the emergence of new ones. Among the new forms of distribution that significantly change the content of income policy, the following can be noted:
wages gradually turned from a form of distribution according to labor into a category of the price of labor power, which determines the conditions for the reproduction of the worker and his family through the sale of his professional abilities on the labor market;
business income is a part of the profit appropriated by the entrepreneur (not always the result of his personal economic activity), directed to the development of production (accumulation) and personal consumption;
Self-employment income represents a combination of the concepts of entrepreneurial income and wages. It is not significant in scale, but requires a qualitatively different classification than business income;
dividends, the income of an investor who invested his property in the creation of an enterprise;
interest on personal savings kept in banks, securities, as well as from participation in financial transactions, currency purchase.
To assess the general economic situation, they are used GDP indicators generally.
Gross domestic product is a general indicator of the country's socio-economic development. Reflecting the final results of the activities of enterprises and organizations producing products and services; one of the indicators of the system of national accounts. Unlike the gross social product, it does not contain the value of production costs (except for depreciation of fixed production assets), but includes income received in the non-productive sphere and depreciation (wear and tear) of fixed assets in this sphere.
Cash income - represents income in the form of wages in cash and in kind, entrepreneurial activity, cash and in-kind income from personal subsidiary plots, payments received by the population from public consumption funds (pensions, scholarships, benefits, compensation, etc.), income from proceeds from the credit and financial system, etc. There are final incomes of the population, nominal income of the population, disposable income of the population, real income of the population. The latter represent the part of national income received by the population as a result of its final use.
Final income of the population - income (in current prices) received by the population as a result of the redistribution of national income and used to satisfy personal needs. Defined as the difference between total family income and deductions from them. Total income includes wages (cash and in kind), income from business activities, pensions, benefits, scholarships, compensation and other receipts from public consumption funds, income from personal subsidiary plots (net production), receipts from the financial and credit system, as well as current material costs of institutions, organizations and enterprises of social, cultural and consumer services that provide paid and free services(schools, hospitals, hairdressers, theaters). Expenses for non-productive services, taxes, fees and payments, cash savings in the form of government loans, deposits in savings banks and cash growth are excluded from the final income of the population. Such calculations ensure methodological unity of the final income of the population with the part of the national income used by the population for consumption and accumulation of personal property, and are the basis for calculating the real income of the population.
Real income of the population is one of the general indicators of the standard of living of the population, the satisfaction of its material and spiritual needs. Calculated on the basis of the final income of the population received in a given period of time, minus taxes paid by the population, various monetary fees, mandatory payments, contributions to public organizations, etc.
The level of real income of the population depends on the size of the final income of the population and prices for consumer goods and services. It is determined by dividing the final income of the population by the price index for consumer goods and services.
Measuring the standard of living can be carried out using a system of indicators reflecting the relationship between the main forms and conditions of people’s life. At the same time, it is quite acceptable that there may be one aggregated indicator or index that fairly reliably and accurately assesses the standard of living. Methodological justification Such an indicator should be preceded by the definition of a system of basic indicators of living standards.
The system of basic indicators of living standards can be based on some methodological approaches:
firstly, to measure the complex and multidimensional category “standard of living”, a block system of indicators can be designed, reflecting different aspects and conditions of human life;
secondly, the set of indicators of living standards should be determined from the perspective of a systematic approach;
thirdly, indicators of the standard of living included in one block (group) must be qualitatively homogeneous, close in the direction of display of the object under study;
fourthly, the differences between individual blocks of living standard indicators should be maximum, while within a block they should be the smallest in terms of content;
fifthly, the system of indicators of living standards must be rational in terms of the number of indicators, visible, and sufficient for the implementation of effective social policy.
In accordance with these methodological approaches, the system of socio-economic indicators must meet certain requirements:
display adequately and completely all essential aspects of the standard of living;
characterize the standard of living of the population;
provide an opportunity to quantify the standard of living of the population by social group and regionally;
to be unified for the purposes of analysis, forecasting and planning of the standard of living of the country's population;
be compatible with the system of indicators of the standard of living of the population used in cross-country comparisons.
Based on certain methodological approaches and requirements, six blocks (modules) of indicators can be distinguished:
1 block - summary indicators (gross domestic product, gross domestic product per capita);
Block 2 - socio-demographic indicators ( average duration future life at birth, indicators infant mortality, natural population growth; share of the working population, unemployment rate);
Block 3 - level and structure of income (average per capita real total income of the population, real disposable income of the population; average monthly wage, income structure, the average size pensions);
Block 4 - level of consumption of material goods and services (cost of living index, monetary expenditures of the population; structure of expenses; consumption of basic food products by the population; purchasing power of food; purchasing power of average wages; expenses for the purchase of durable goods; housing provision; development of education , culture);
Block 5 - social standards (living wage, rational level of consumption, minimum average monthly wage, minimum size old age pensions);
Block 6 - social differentiation of the population (stratification coefficient (the ratio of the number of “poor” to the number of “wealthy” per 1000 people); differentiation of the population by size average per capita income; income concentration index (Gini coefficient)).
Specific studies conducted on problems of living standards of the population may vary:
goals and objectives of the study;
object of research;
methods of studying the standard of living of the population.
Depending on the goals, objectives and object of study, various methods of studying the standard of living of the population can be used, one of which is monitoring.
Monitoring the study of the standard of living of the population is a complex mechanism that includes various blocks and elements. The purpose of monitoring may be to track the standard of living of the population in the country as a whole, economic regions, territorial-administrative entities, and assess the impact of ongoing reforms on the standard of living. Monitoring living standards does not duplicate household surveys conducted by statistical bodies. As part of the monitoring, analytical calculations are performed that make it possible, using evaluative indicators, to judge ongoing changes in the standard of living of the population.
Studies of the standard of living of the population of the Republic of Kazakhstan conducted over a relatively long period of time (about 15 years) convincingly prove that since 2002 there has been a steady positive trend in the growth of living standard indicators. However, it should be noted that the dynamics of changes in various indicators that determine the standard of living of the population of Kazakhstan have different rates of change, since the time factor has a significant impact on different aspects of human life.
When studying the standard of living of the population, a special place is occupied by indicators of satisfaction of needs. A quantitative assessment of the degree of satisfaction of needs seems possible by comparing the actual amount of consumed goods and services that characterize a particular need with the standard level. In terms of content, the standard of living of the population represents the calculated values of the level of consumption of material goods and services, taking into account the influence of regional conditions on the needs of the population. Social norms and standards can establish a minimum and rational level of need satisfaction.
Minimum social standards define the system of minimum social guarantees provided by the state to its citizens. These include the minimum wage and old-age pension, the right to receive social insurance benefits (unemployment, illness, pregnancy and childbirth, childcare, low-income), a minimum set of publicly available and free services in the field of education, health and culture. Rational social standards take into account “normal” physiological needs, rational living conditions and the current level of development of productive forces. In the system of social standards, one can highlight standards for the development of the material base of social infrastructure, income and expenses of the population, social security and services, consumption of material goods and paid services by the population, living conditions, state environment, consumer budget. A special place in the tools for analyzing the living standards of the population is occupied by determining the cost of the minimum and rational consumer budget.
To assess the standard of living of low-income strata and groups of the population, it is necessary to have a scientifically based calculation system that determines the minimum funds necessary to ensure normal human life. This minimum is determined on the basis of a scientifically based consumer budget, expressing the minimum physiological needs of a person for food products and services. The minimum consumer budget should be determined for individuals depending on gender, age, and natural and climatic living conditions.
The comprehensiveness, depth and effectiveness of the analysis of the standard of living of the population is determined by accepted system comparisons. In the analysis of living standards, the following types of comparisons can be used:
dynamic - for last years and over longer periods of time, can be used to identify the nature and pace of dynamics of living standard indicators;
regional - by territorial administrative units, economic regions in order to identify regional differentiation, as well as in relation to the average for the country and economic regions;
social - by economic groups of the population, identifying social differentiation in relation to average per capita indicators and indicators of decile groups. When studying living standards important has a separation of the poor and the most affluent;
normative - comparisons with the minimum and high levels life, with food standards, housing provision, the share of costs for food, housing and communal services in the structure of expenses;
international - comparisons with living standards in different countries. In international comparisons, differences in the system of indicators used to assess the standard of living of the population, in economic, natural and historical factors, differences in purchasing power national currencies. Carrying out international comparisons of the standard of living of the population requires the researcher to minimize the incomparability of the compared indicators.
Minimum social standards can be accepted as living standards and considered as an instrument of social policy, which should contain:
a complete list of services by industry that the state is obliged to provide to citizens on a free and irrevocable basis through funding from budgets of all levels budget system country and government budgets off-budget funds;
minimum social standards, which are indicators of the required security in physical terms for the corresponding unit of the type of service;
financial standards as the monetary expression of social standards;
minimum budgetary provision, defined as the minimum acceptable cost of government or local services in monetary terms, provided by state and local authorities per capita of the territory at the expense of the corresponding budgets.
It is obvious that many of the social standards established long ago and still in force are outdated and require serious revision. When getting to know them, the question arises: on the basis of which administrative-territorial units were they tested?
Along with the budgetary security standard, which characterizes financial opportunities state, it is necessary to really introduce a social security standard that reflects the needs arising from the requirements of the law, industry standards, promises of the government and deputies. Figuratively speaking, it is necessary to establish the cost of social laws per consumer (resident, pensioner, student, child, etc.).
In our opinion, it is necessary to distinguish between social security standards and living standards. The former are calculated by modeling the application of laws, while the latter are determined by quantitative indicators that ensure the quality of social services in accordance with industry standards. Of course, ideally, social norms should be in harmony with living standards.
Innovative changes in the mechanism social management region are largely related to the introduction of living standards in non-production sectors (education, healthcare, culture, etc.), with which social security standards are consistent.
Government regulation income includes a system of measures and norms of a legislative, executive and control nature carried out public organizations and authorized government institutions to achieve stabilization of incomes of the population and their increase depending on the socio-economic conditions in society. The purpose of state regulation is to create the necessary conditions for the reproduction of the labor force.
According to the scope of government intervention in the country's economy in modern times, economic theory There are three most typical models of state intervention in the economy:
1) Total, strict management of the economy. The characteristic features of this model are: limitation of the market mechanism, prosperity of shortages and the black market, distribution of GDP through the coupon (card) system.
2) Liberal - a democratic model, which has several modifications, one of which aims to maintain a market economy and leads to an increase in economic efficiency.
Another modification of the liberal-democratic model is the “Reagan-Thatcher” model, which involves moderate government intervention in the economy through privatization and the destruction of monopolies, limiting protectionist policies, low taxes, protecting companies through government regulations and trade restrictions.
3) A model that is typical for countries with transition economy. Her characteristic feature is government intervention in the market economy through a system of restrictions on internal competition, which in turn contributes to an increase in the number of monopolies. The ongoing protectionist policy excludes the country from the system of international cooperation and closes the economy from international competition. Levashov V.I. Social policy of income and wages. M., 2008, p. 12
Because market distribution is inherently unfair, modern conditions it is impossible to completely exclude government intervention in social... economic processes. Therefore, there is a need for government intervention. The possibility of government regulation arises as a result of achieving a certain level of economic growth, concentration of capital and production. The need for government regulation of income involves combating the number of increasing difficulties.
Currently, the regulation of income by the state is an integral part of reproduction. State income regulation stimulates the economic growth, supports exports, encourages progressive changes in regional and industry structures, regulates taxation, employment, prices. The specific forms, goals and scope of state regulation of income are determined in accordance with the severity of social... economic problems. The role of public authorities is to stimulate the formation of organizational infrastructure innovation economy, in creating conditions for increasing the efficiency of existing industries. Improving the quality of life of the population / Semenova G. N. // Bulletin. - 2010 - No. 4, p. 138
The main objects of state regulation of income include conditions, situations, areas, sources of income generation, where difficulties have arisen or may arise, problems that cannot be solved automatically or can be solved, but in the distant future. Eliminating these problems helps normal functioning economy, reproduction of the workforce, maintaining a stable situation.
Objects of state regulation of income:
1) Minimum wage, income
2) Training and retraining of personnel, employment
3) Prices, taxes
4) Social relations, social guarantees
5) Legal support.
The main task of state regulation of income is the redistribution of income through the state budget through differentiated taxation for different groups of income recipients. As a result, a significant portion of national income is transferred to low-income segments of the population from high-income segments. Thus, growing incomes of the poor create the necessary conditions for the reproduction of the labor force, regulate employment, and help reduce social tension.
Government activity in this area can be measured by the volume of social expenditures from local and federal budgets. Based on this, it turns out that the state’s capabilities in the field of income redistribution are limited by budget revenues. If social spending increases on top of tax revenues, inflation and the budget deficit will increase. If this happens, then there is an excessive increase in taxes and an inflationary increase in nominal incomes.
State income policy is carried out in two main directions: regulation of income of the population, redistribution of income through the state budget. Yuryeva. T, V., Maryganova. Macroeconomics., M., 2008, p. 235
The population income regulation policy assumes:
1) Establishment of a minimum wage, which is of great importance for the following categories of the population: women, low-skilled workers, foreign workers, youth. Also, the establishment of such a minimum is often used as a starting point for determining the wages of higher categories of workers.
2) Regulation in some cases of the upper threshold for increasing nominal wages in order to reduce production costs and, on this basis, increase investment, curb inflation and increase the competitiveness of national products
3) Protecting the monetary income of the population from inflationary depreciation through indexation, that is, increasing the nominal income of the population depending on rising prices. Indexation can be carried out both at the state level and at the firm level, being included in the collective agreement, and also carried out differentiated depending on the amount of income.
The income redistribution policy assumes:
1) Concentration of funds in government hands for the implementation of social policy through the collection of taxes from the population: direct and indirect
2) Providing social guarantees to the population through financing systems medical care, education, arts, cultural institutions and other financing systems social protection, which turns on the system social insurance and a system of state assistance for persons unable to provide an income. The social policy of the state sets the task of maintaining a balance of income and expenses of various social groups and providing through government mechanisms improving the standard of living and, ultimately, the reproduction of the population, developing the technical level of the country and maintaining culture. Levashov V.I. Social policy of income and wages. M., 2008, p. 16
Social protection is based on the payment by the state of transfer payments, that is, non-refundable. Social transfers are a system of natural and cash payments to the population that are not related to its participation in economic activities in the past or present. The depth of government intervention in the redistribution of income of the population should be carried out in accordance with optimal sizes. The income equalization process designed to modern society necessary for many reasons, can lead, as a result of excessive tax increases, to reduce economic efficiency, destroy incentives for entrepreneurship, and also undermine incentives for recipients of transfer payments. Carrying out such a policy requires considerable funds to maintain the bureaucratic apparatus. When implementing social policy, the state uses the following tools: consumer budgets, social standards, other threshold social limiters.
Social standards are a means of ensuring the rights of citizens in the field of social guarantees. Minimum state social standards are government services that are provided to citizens on an irrevocable and free basis (through funding from all levels of the budget system Russian Federation, as well as from the budgets of state extra-budgetary funds) and are guaranteed by the state at a minimum level throughout the Russian Federation. They are used to determine financial standards that are necessary for the formation of budgets and extra-budgetary funds. Based on social standards (threshold indicators) for healthcare, education, and science, the volumes of their funding are established.
State regulation of population income
First of all, income regulation is manifested in the wage regulation mechanism, which is a combination and interaction of three mechanisms:
1) government intervention(the role is more social than economic; the nature is more indirect than direct);
2) collective agreement (national, industry, company) regulation;
3) labor market, subject to the law of value.
The experience of state regulation of incomes of the population shows that government bodies departments participate in wage regulation in the following areas:
establishment of a guaranteed minimum wage (USA, France, Spain, etc.), but it can also be established on the basis of national agreements;
tax system (in relation to income and wages);
limits on wage growth during periods of increased inflation (or compensation for falling incomes during periods of rising prices);
direct regulation of wages in the public sector of the economy (however, it is limited, since most state-owned enterprises operate on the principles of complete economic independence and payback);
institutional foundations of collective agreement regulation.
The minimum wage rate is set for an adult, whose age varies across countries. The minimum rate for a young person is set as a percentage of minimum rate adult. The length of the probationary period varies depending on the category of personnel and the country.
Collective agreement regulation is carried out by business organizations and trade unions at the national (state), industry and company levels. If on state level the role of regulation is rather social, then at the industry level it is not only social, but also economic, stimulating, and at the company level it is primarily a stimulating role. There is a certain hierarchical subordination so that the established minimum wage on a national scale is not lower (possibly higher) at the industry and company levels.
As we move to the primary level, collective agreements become more and more detailed, taking into account the characteristics of the industry, firms and their economic opportunities.
IN national(sectoral) collective agreements regulate (set) the minimum wage for the nation as a whole or for sectors of the economy and general order wage indexation.
Industry collective agreements regulate: the minimum tariff rate for the main professional qualification groups, forms and systems of wages, bonuses and additional payments, the wage indexation mechanism, the amount of social payments and benefits.
Corporate collective agreements regulate the size and differentiation of tariff rates, allowances and additional payments, wage indexation, the system of participation in profits and share capital, the amount of social payments and benefits. They also reflect working hours (length of the working week, vacation, etc.). First of all, such collective agreements regulate the wages of workers. For managers and specialists, these issues are specified in contracts.
Market self-tuning cannot be considered a market element. The labor market presents a wide dispersion of wages in public and private companies, the unorganized sector, where there are no trade unions. The labor market is the area where the public assessment various types labor. It is represented by the average wages according to various professional qualification groups, categories, industries, regions, length of service, gender, age.
Both the state and private companies are interested in identifying the average salary. The government periodically conducts surveys, and private companies and the informal labor market provide all the necessary information. The company administration puts the obtained data on the average salary in the middle of the salary range for each category.
The average statistical salary reflects the public assessment of work. It is not only a link between the labor market and a specific company, but also serves as a tool equal pay for equal work.
All enterprises (firms) strive to comply with this principle, as it allows:
1) restrain wage growth;
2) prevent the leakage of the most qualified personnel.
Market self-adjustment is a systematic, independent adjustment of wages by each firm, taking into account the average wage for all specified parameters.
Protecting nominal incomes from inflation is an integral part of income policy. In developed capitalist countries, it is carried out by indexing income both at the state level (based on relevant legislation) and at the level of individual firms (companies) through a collective agreement. The indexation system provides for a differentiated approach (from full compensation of the most low income and its complete absence in high-income groups of the population).
All RKS provide state (and not only) support for the income of poor families, there are certain systems of social security (insurance), support for self-employed workers, etc. Due to national characteristics and economic opportunities there is a wide variety of them. For example, in the USA on state(government) level, two groups of programs can be distinguished:
1) social insurance programs(partially compensates for lost earnings of pensioners, the unemployed, due to temporary disability, dependents who have survived the insured, etc.);
2) government assistance programs(charity programs) - establishing benefits for those who cannot work (the elderly, blind, disabled), assistance to single-parent families, etc.
When improving public policy income in Russia, it is advisable to take into account the experience accumulated in the PRS over 200 years of market relations.
The income of participants in a market economy is distributed according to the degree of participation of production factors (land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship). The factor theory of income does not fix the amount of income of individuals, which is formed from various non-factor sources.
Personal income is understood as the amount of money and material goods received or produced by households over a certain period of time.
The level of consumption of the population directly depends on the level of income. According to the degree of impact on the consumption process, they distinguish between nominal, real and actually disposable incomes of the population.
Nominal income of the population is the monetary expression of income received over a certain period. They characterize the level of income regardless of taxation and price changes.
In a socially oriented economy, the share of nominal income of the population in GDP fluctuates depending on the level of development of the country and averages 65-75%.
Disposable income is nominal income reduced by the amount of mandatory payments and taxes, which represent the monetary expression of the amount appropriated directly by the population for final consumption. Their value is determined by the formula:
Dr = Dn - Np,
where Др - disposable income;
Dn - nominal income;
Hn is the amount of taxes and mandatory payments.
Disposable income expresses the relationship between the state and the population regarding the use of received funds. In the national accounting system, disposable income corresponds to the portion of GDP that goes to the population for consumption. The greater the amount of disposable income, the greater the share of GDP is spent on consumption and the greater the volume of necessary material goods received to support the life of the population.
Real disposable income is income adjusted for the price level.
The amount of real disposable income grows if price growth does not outpace the growth of real income, otherwise disposable income falls, which leads to a decrease in effective demand and a reduction in production volumes. The decline in disposable income is caused by the following reasons:
firstly, unbalanced proportions between price dynamics (for food, non-food products, transport, housing) and income;
secondly, the growth of tariffs for services, which increase faster than prices in the consumer market;
thirdly, an increase in the proportion of the population whose standard of living is lower living wage; worsening poverty processes, increasing the share of the population that lives below the poverty line.
Thus, despite the growth of nominal incomes, their real value, taking into account inflation and taxes, may fall, which leads to a decrease in purchasing power, narrows the consumer market, and restrains the growth of production volumes.
The main types of income of the population are: wages (together with various charges and additional payments), social transfers, income from property, etc. In general, the system of types of income of the population is presented in Fig. 17.1.1.
Remuneration is a regularly received remuneration for products produced or services provided, for time worked, including payment annual leave, holidays and other unworked time paid in accordance with labor legislation and collective labor agreements.
Its source is the wage fund.
This type of cash income of the population includes all types of remuneration accrued by an enterprise, institution, organization of any form of ownership in cash and in kind for worked and unworked time, incentive additional payments and allowances, compensation payments, related to working hours and working conditions, bonuses and one-time incentive payments, as well as payments for food, housing, fuel, which are of a regular nature.
Along with wages, in the conditions of the formation of a market economy, income from business activities has become a component element of the population’s income system.
When characterizing entrepreneurship and the income received from this type of activity, it is necessary to emphasize that its socio-economic types differ significantly: an entrepreneur can be a small owner, manager joint stock company(manager), cooperator, tenant, using hired labor. Entrepreneurship is carried out by both individuals and groups of people (collective entrepreneurship).
Rice. 17.1.1. Types of income of the population 44
The formation of market relations has made significant adjustments to income received, on the one hand, in the form of wages, and on the other, from property, entrepreneurial activity, and self-employment of the population. If in 1990 these incomes in their total amounted to only 11.2%, then in 1998 - already 54.4%, and their decrease in 1999 to 21% is explained by a decrease in the share of other incomes (from this indicator we derive hidden wages). Income from business activities increased 3.5 times, reaching 12.7%. Income from property grew rapidly, although their share remains small - 7.4%.
Public or so-called social transfers occupy an important place in the income of the population.
These include pensions, benefits, scholarships, subsidies and other payments for social security, insurance compensation, lottery winnings, reimbursement of expenses for disabled people, compensation for damage to repressed citizens, as well as free services that form part of the income of citizens.
Funds public consumption, which functioned quite extensively and easily under socialism, are now practically destroyed. The only thing that still represents them today is partially free education and healthcare.
Personal income from property includes:
■ income from shares, interest, payments on equity shares from the participation of employees in the ownership of an enterprise, institution, organization;
■ interest on deposits due to depositors of credit institutions, Sberbank of Russia and Vnesheconombank (paid during the year and accrued on the balance of deposits at the end of the year);
■ income payments for government and other securities Sberbank of Russia and credit organizations;
■ preliminary compensation for citizens' deposits;
■ income of the population from the sale of real estate on the secondary housing market.
A certain and ever-increasing part of the country’s population’s income comes from personal subsidiary plots (PHS), collective gardening and vegetable gardening. Until the 70s. A negative attitude towards private household plots prevailed, and the scale of their development was insignificant. Thus, at the beginning of the reforms, income from private household plots amounted to 2.3% in families of workers and employees, 21.5% in families of peasants.
Basically, private household plots are focused on meeting the personal needs of the owners (to receive income in kind). In the 90s The rural population from private household plots met their needs for potatoes by 95%, meat - 79%, milk - 82%, eggs - 97%. Household and garden plots of urban families and village residents provide about 50% of the needs for potatoes, vegetables, berries and fruits. About a quarter of the products produced in JlllX are sold on the market, generating income in cash. But, by and large, the so-called traditional or “proletarian” strategy of model behavior of households is being implemented, based on the survival of the non-market sector of the economy.
Thus, JlllX has become the main means of survival for some part of the population.
Income from the sale of personal farm products includes proceeds from the sale of livestock and other agricultural products in markets, procurement organizations of consumer cooperation, farms and state farms, various organizations, etc.
Income from JlllX has a positive impact on income growth and reduction of income differentiation of the population, especially rural ones. IN total income In rural families, the share of income from them reaches 25-35%, and in urban families - 3-5%.
This is due not only to differences in the income levels of these groups, but also to differences in the provision of urban and rural population land plots. According to sociologists, on average, a quarter of urban families have dachas, from 3 to 8% - land, and among rural families, 80% have gardening, vegetable and personal plots. Rural families, as a rule, have large plots. Among urban families, 64.5% have a plot size of 0.06 hectares, and among rural families, more than half have a plot size exceeding 0.1 hectares.
Income from JlllX can be not only in cash, but also in kind.
Income in kind is represented by products that are used by producers for their own consumption or barter exchange for goods and services with other citizens. By-
consumption of JlllX products allows a household to save money and reduce the share of food costs in the structure cash expenses. Household savings can be calculated using the formula: 
where j - types of products;
Q is the number of products of each type consumed in the household;
p - prices for products of similar quality. Similarly, one can calculate the savings obtained as a result of the barter exchange of JlllX products for goods and services produced by other citizens.
In addition, citizens receive other types of income from self-employment, providing services to other citizens and receiving payment for them in cash, which is not reflected in the documents. It is impossible to determine exactly the amount of income from self-employment. Income from shadow economy. IN in this case possible use expert assessments and the results of sociological surveys.
Other receipts include:
Income of employees from enterprises and organizations, except for wages and social payments;
Receipts from the financial system, including changes in debt on loans issued to citizens for individual housing construction and other purposes; change in debt on loans issued by credit institutions to citizens consumer goals; changes in debt on loans issued to commercial entrepreneurs operating without forming a legal entity;
Personal income from sales foreign currency (commercial banks and Sberbank of Russia);
Other income, including: from the sale of scrap materials, scrap metal, etc. (non-agricultural procurement), other income;
Money received through transfers (less transferred and deposited amounts);
Income not related to the wage fund and social payments, including travel expenses, royalties, wage supplements paid to employees of certain sectors of the economy due to the mobile (traveling) nature of the work, field allowances, the cost of free uniforms, uniforms remaining in personal constant use, or the amount of benefits in connection with their sale at reduced prices, etc.;
Changes in debt on loans issued to citizens for individual housing construction and other purposes;
Changes in debt on loans issued for consumer purposes by credit institutions;
Changes in household debt for purchasing goods on credit;
Changes in debt on loans issued to commercial entrepreneurs operating without forming a legal entity.
Other income includes revenue from the sale of scrap metal, waste materials and handicrafts (non-agricultural procurement) and other income.
This article takes into account payments from funds issued to enterprises and organizations by credit institutions for business, operational and other expenses. It also reflects the income of the population from individual entrepreneurial activities. Part of the unaccounted wages is reflected here (for example, monetary and clothing allowances for military personnel of the Russian Ministry of Defense, the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Russian FSB, etc.), as well as wages that are sheltered from taxation and paid in various forms- in the form of purchasing cars, apartments for their employees, cash assistance for the construction of individual housing, acquisition garden plot, durable items, interest-free loan, opening an individual bank account, etc.
Money received through transfers (minus transferred amounts) increases the volume of monetary resources of the population presented in a given region (republic, territory, region) for the purchase
goods and payments for services, and are therefore taken into account in the income side of the balance sheet. If the amount of money transferred by mail is greater than the amounts received, then the difference (balance) is taken into account in the expenditure side of the balance, since in these cases the amount of monetary resources for the purchase of goods and payment for services in a given region (republic, territory, region) decreases. To calculate the amounts received (sent) for transfers, data on postal and telegraphic transfers through communications companies is used.
The change in the structure of household incomes during the period of transition to a market economy is shown in Table 17.1.1.
Table 17.1.1
Structure of income of the population of the Russian Federation in 1990-2000. (%) 47
| Name of cash income | 1990 | 1991 | 1992 | 1993 | 1994 | 1995 | 1996 | 1997 | 1998 | 1999 | 2000 |
| Cash income - total, including: | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
| salary | 74D | 623 | 73,6 | 61,1 |